THE    EASTERN   NATIONS 
AND  GREECE__j 


MYERS 


^ 


LIBRARY 


^^~— aJ.x_j^jo^ 


\ 


[Xj2Lii^w»    W,  ^^.^vwAjX- 


ANCIENT   HISTORY 


FOR 


COLLEGES   AND    HIGH    SCHOOLS. 


BY 


P.  V.  N.   MYERS, 


Acting  Professor  of  History  and  Political  Economy  in  the  University 
OF  C:ncin:i^ti;   Acthcr  of  "  P.Isoia^val  and  Modern  History," 

,,  !      '  and    "A    Ge.4i:;.>AlH. STORY." 


Part   I. 
THE  EASTERN  NATIONS  AND  GREECE. 


BOSTON,   U.S.A.: 

PUBLISHED    BY   GINN    &   COMPANY. 

1895. 


//VI^ 


..  liu      i^>^    ^ 

^  r-  - 


Entered  according  to  Aft  of  Cpngress,  jn  the  year  1888,  by 
in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  ol  Congress,  at  Washington. 


lU  «         «  ^     to    «    « 


Presswork  by  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE   TO    PART   FIRST. 


THE  following  pages  are  a  revision  and  expansion  of  the 
corresponding  part  of  my  Outlines  of  Ancient  History, 
which  was  published  as  a  library  book  in  1882,  by  Messrs.  Har- 
per &  Brothers.  It  is  through  the  generous  action  of  these 
publishers  that  I  have  had  the  advantage  of  making  this  ear- 
lier work  the  basis  of  the  present  text-book. 

The  chapters  relating  to  the  Eastern  nations  have  been  re- 
written in  the  light  of  the  most  recent  revelations  of  the  mon- 
uments of  Egypt  and  Babylonia.  The  connecting  links  between 
the  history  of  the  East  and  that  of  the  West  have  been  care- 
fully traced,  and  the  influence  of  Oriental  civilization  upon  the 
later  development  of  the  Western  peoples  fully  indicated.  It 
is  shown  that,  before  the  East  gave  a  religion  to  the  West,  it 
imparted  to  the  younger  peoples  of  Europe  many  primary  ele- 
ments of  art  and  general  culture.  This  lends  a  sort  of  epic 
unity  to  a  series  of  events  and  historic  developments  too  apt 
to  be  regarded  as  fragmentary  and  unrelated,  and  invests  the 
history  of  the  old  civihzations  of  the  Orient  with  fresh  interest 
and  instruction. 

In  tracing  the  growth  of  Greek  civilization,  while  the  value  of 
the  germs  of  culture  which  the  Greeks  received  from  the  older 
nations  of  the  East  is  strongly  insisted  upon,  still  it  is  admitted 
that  the  determining  factor  in  the  wonderful  Greek  develop- 
ment was  the  peculiar  genius  of  the  Greek  race  itself. 


iv  PREFACE. 

The  references  throughout  the  book  are  given,  not  alone  with 
the  view  of  directing  the  pupil  to  the  sources  of  information, 
but  also  of  making  acknowledgment  of  indebtedness.  In  ad- 
dition to  these  references  to  the  authorities  I  have  used,  I  wish 
here  to  make  special  mention  of  my  indebtedness  to  the  works 
of  George  Rawlinson,  Sayce,  Wilkinson,  Brugsch,  Grote,  Cur- 
tins,  and  Dr.  William  Smith. 

The  maps  and  illustrations  with  which  my  publishers  have  so 
liberally  enriched  the  book,  have  been  drawn  from  the  most 
authentic  sources.  The  maps  are  reproductions  of  the  admira- 
ble charts  accompanying  Professor  Freeman's  Historical  Geog- 
raphy of  Europe;  while  the  cuts,  which  have  been  chosen 
solely  with  reference  to  their  historical  and  illustrative  value, 
are,  in  the  main,  selections  from  Prang's  Illustrations  of  the 
History  of  Art,  and  Oscar   Jager's   Weltgeschichte. 

For  many  valuable  criticisms  and  suggestions,  I  wish  to  ex- 
press my  hearty  thanks  to  Professor  William  F.  Allen,  of  the 
University  of  Wisconsin,  and  D.  H.  Montgomery,  Esq.,  of  Boston. 

College  Hill,  Ohio,  P^    Y.    N.    M. 

Feb.  4,  i888. 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Preface "i 

List  of  Illustrations vii 

List  of  Maps ix 

Tables  and  Chronological  Summaries ix 

Introductory:  The  Races  and  their  Migrations i 


Part  I. 

THE   EASTERN    NATIONS   AND    GREECE. 
Section  I. — The  Eastern  Nations. 

CHAPTER 

I.    Political  History  of  Ancient  Egypt 15 

II.    Religion,  Monuments,  Arts,  and  Sciences  of  the  Ancient  Egyp- 
tians    34 

III.  The  Chaldsean  Monarchy 57 

IV.  Arts  and  General  Culture  of  the  Chaldeeans 64 

V.   The  Assyrian  Monarchy 76 

VI.    Institutions,  Architecture,  and  Literature  of  the  Assyrians 84 

VII.   The  Babylonian  Monarchy 96 

VIII.   The  Hebrew  Nation 107 

IX.   The   Phoenicians 120 

X.   Lydia 128 

XI.   The  Persian  Empire I33 

XII.    Institutions,  Religion,  and  Architecture  of  the  Ancient  Persians..  144 


vi  CONTENTS, 

Section  II.  —  Greece. 

CHAPTER  ,  PAGE 

1.  The  Land  and  the  People 152 

II.   The  Legendary  or  Heroic  Age , 162 

III.  Religion  of  the  Greeks 1 74 

IV.  Age  of  Constitutional  Changes  and  of  Colonization :  Growth  of 

Sparta  and  of  Athens 1 86 

V.  The  Grseco-Persian  Wars 210 

VI.   Period  of  Athenian  Supremacy 225 

VII.   The  Peloponnesian  War :   the  Spartan  and  the  Theban  Suprem- 
acy    242 

VIII.    Period  of  Macedonian  Supremacy :  Empire  of  Alexander 258 

IX.    States  formed  from  the  Empire  of  Alexander 273 

X.   Greek  Architecture,  Sculpture,  and  Painting 283 

XI.   Greek    Literature 305 

XII.    Greek  Philosophy  and  Science 327 

XIII.   Social  Life  of  the  Greeks ► 346 

Index  and  Pronouncing  Vocabulary 359 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


-»<>•- 


PAGE 

1.  View  of  the  Attic  Plains,  with  a  Glimpse  of  the  Acropolis  of  Athens. 

Frontispiece. 

2.  Portrait-statue  of  Rameses  II 26 

3.  Rameses  II.  returning  in  Triumph  from  Syria 27 

4.  Judgment  of  the  Dead 4^ 

5.  The  Great  Hall  of  Columns  at  Karnak 45 

6.  Facade  of  Rock  Temple  at  Ipsambul 46 

7.  Colossi  at  Thebes •  •  •  47 

8.  Seti  1 54 

9.  Profile  of  Rameses  II 55 

10.  Ancient  Babylonian  Canals 5^ 

1 1 .  Babylonian  Brick 64 

1 2.  Chaldsean  Tablets • 68 

13.  Chaldsean  Tablet  with  Parts  of  the  Deluge  Legend 73 

14.  Siege  of  a  City,  showing  Use  of  Battering-ram  (from  Nimrud) 82 

15.  Assyrians  flaying  their  Prisoners 86 

16.  Lion  Hunt  (from  Nineveh)   87 

1 7.  Assyrian  Royal  Palace  at  Nineveh 9° 

18.  Sculptures  from  a  Gateway  at  Khorsabad 9 1 

19.  Birs-Nimrud 102 

20.  Alphabets 125 

21.  Tomb  of  Cyrus  the  Great I34 

22.  Captive  Insurgents  brought  before  Darius 138 

23.  The  Ruins  of  Persepolis 149 

24.  The  King  in  Combat  with  a  Monster  (from  Persepolis) 150 

25.  Greek  Warriors  preparing  for  Battle 2I0 


vii,  LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

26.  Themistocles 214 

27.  Pericles ^35 

28.  Alcibiades 247 

29.  Head  of  Alexander  the  Great = 262 

30.  Pelasgian  Masonry 284 

31.  Doric  Capital • ^^5 

32.  Ionic  Capital 2°5 

33.  Corinthian  Capital 286 

34.  Athenian  Youth  in  Procession  (from  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon)  .  289 

35.  The  Acropolis  at  Athens  (restored) 290 

36.  The  Parthenon  (present  condition) • 291 

37.  The  Theatre  of  Dionysus  at  Athens •  •  •  292 

38.  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates 293 

39.  Pitching  the  Discus  or  Quoit  (Discobolus) 295 

40.  Athena  Parthenos 296 

41 .  Head  of  the  Olympian  Zeus  by  Phidias ^ 297 

42.  Interior  of  the  Temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia 299 

43.  The  Laocoon  Group •  - IP^ 

44.  Homer 3^7 

45.  Bacchic  Procession 3^1 

46.  ^schylus • 3H 

47.  Sophocles 3"° 

48.  Herodotus = 3^8 

49.  Thucydides   320 

50.  Demosthenes 323 

5 1 .  Socrates = ^^^ 

52.  Plato ' 334 

53.  Aristotle - • 33^ 

54.  A  Greek  School  (after  a  vase-painting)   347 

55.  Greek  Tragic  Figure 35^ 


LIST    OF   COLORED    MAPS. 


PAGE 

1.  Ancient  Egypt 16 

2.  Region  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates - .  60 

3.  Kingdoms  of  Lydia,  Media,  and  Babylonia,  c.  B.C.  590 128 

4.  Greece  and  her  Colonies = .  .  190 

5.  Greece  in  the  Fifth  Century  B.c 242 

6.  Dominions  and  Dependencies  of  Alexander,  c.  B.C.  323 264 

7.  Kingdom  of  the  Successors  of  Alexander,  c.  B.C.  350 274 

8.  Sketch-map  of  Athens  and  the  Long  Walls 236 


-oo^^c 


TABLES  AND    CHRONOLOGICAL  SUMMARIES. 


-•0* 

PAGE 


1.  Races  of  Mankind,  with  Chief  Families  and  Peoples 13 

2.  Chronological  Summary  of  Egyptian  History 33 

3.  Table  of  Chaldaean,  Assyrian,  and  Babylonian  Dynasties  and  Kings,  106 

4.  Table  of  Hebrew  Kings 119 

5.  Table  of  Kings  of  Media  and  Persia 143 

6.  Chronological  Summary  of  Grecian  History  to  the  Death  of  Alexan- 

der the  Great • 272 

7.  Table  of  the  Seleucidae  and  the  Ptolemies 282 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

»0>«<00 

INTRODUCTION. 

THE   RACES   AND  THEIR   EARLY   MIGRATIONS. 

Definition  of  History.  —  History  is  a  narrative  of  the  life  of 
humanity.  The  recital  properly  begins  at  that  point  in  the  progress 
of  mankind  where  clans  and  tribes  are  found  gathered  in  the 
larger  political  units  called  States,  or  Nations. 

If  the  narrative  deal  chiefly  with  outer,  public  events,  such  as 
the  doings  of  kings  and  the  fortunes  of  dynasties,  wars  between 
nations,  and  the  feuds  and  contentions  within  a  state  of  rival 
political  parties,  then  the  record  constitutes  Political  History ;  if, 
however,  the  recital  concern  itself  mainly  with  the  real,  inner  life 
of  nations,  with  the  progress  of  art,  science,  literature,  religion,  and 
general  culture,  with  the  growth  of  ideas  and  institutions,  then  it 
becomes  a  History  of  Civilization.  But  it  is  only  the  narrative 
that  weaves  the  several  threads  of  these  special  histories  into  a 
single  and  continuous  story,  that  constitutes  History  in  the  unre- 
stricted meaning  of  the  term.  The  present  work  aims  to  be  a 
history  in  this  general  sense. 

Divisions  of  History.  —  History  is  usually  divided  into  three 
periods,  —  Ancient,  Mediaeval,  and  Modern.  Ancient  Hi  tory 
begins  with  the  earliest  nations  of  which  we  can  gain  any  cer- 
tain knowledge,  and  extends  to  the  fall  of  the   Roman    Empire 


2  INTR  on  UC  TION. 

in  the  West,  a.d.  476.  Mediaeval  History  embraces  the  period, 
about  one  thousand  years  in  length,  lying  between  the  fall  of 
Rome  and  the  discovery  of  the  New  World  by  Columbus,  a.d. 
1492.  Modern  History  commences  with  the  close  of  the  Medi- 
£Eval  period  and  extends  to  the  present  time. 

Some  prefer  to  date  the  beginning  of  the  Modern  period  from 
the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  a.d.  1453  ;  while  still 
others  speak  of  it  in  a  general  way  as  commencing  about  the  close 
of  the  15  th  century,  at  which  time  there  were  many  inventions 
and  discoveries,  and  a  great  stir  in  the  intellectual  world. 

Antiquity  of  Man.  —  We  do  not  know  when  man  first  came 
into  possession  of  the  earth.  His  antiquity,  like  the  age  of  the 
planet  he  inhabits,  is  shrouded  in  obscurity.  But  as  the  science 
of  geology  has  taught  us  that  the  earth  is  very  old,  much  older 
than  we  once  thought,  so  different  sciences  are  telling  us  that  man 
has  been  upon  the  earth  a  much  longer  time  than  we  have  been 
used  to  supposing.  Yet  we  can  set  no  definite  date  to  his  first 
appearance.  We  only  know  that,  in  ages  vastly  remote,  when 
both  the  climate  and  outline  of  Europe  were  very  different  from 
what  they  are  at  present,  man  lived  on  that  continent  with  animals 
now  extinct ;  and  that,  about  3000  B.C.,  when  the  historic  curtain 
first  rises,  vast  migratory  movements,  manifestly  begun  long  before 
that  date,  are  going  on  among  the  families  and  tribes  of  the  differ- 
ent races  of  mankind ;  while  in  some  favored  regions,  as  in  the 
valley  of  the  Nile,  there  are  nations  and  civilizations  already 
venerable  with  age,  and  possessing  arts,  governments,  and  insti- 
tutions that  bear  evidence  of  slow  growth  through  very  long 
periods  of  prehistoric  times. 

The  investigation  and  study  of  this  vast  background  of  human 
life,  that  lies  so  dim  and  mysterious  in  the  remote  past,  is  left  to 
such  sciences  as  Ethnology,  Comparative  Philology,  and  Prehis- 
toric Archaeology. 

The  Races  of  Mankind.  —  Distinctions  in  form,  color,  and 
physiognomy  divide  the  human  species  into  three  great  types,  or 
races,  known  as  the   Black    (Ethiopian,  or  Negro),   the  Yellow 


THE  RACES  AND   THEIR  EARLY  MIGRATIONS.  3 

(Turanian,  or  Mongolian),  and  the  White   (Caucasian).^     These 
races  subdivide  themselves  into  numerous  families  and  peoples." 

As  to  which  of  these  great  races  is  the  oldest,  or  the  original 
type,  we  have  no  positive  knowledge ;  however,  many  testimonies 
—  ethnological,  linguistic,  and  historical  —  concur  in  leading. us 
to  assume  that  they  all  stand  in  the  relation  of  children  to  an 
original  mother-type  that  is  lost. 

We  must  not  suppose  each  of  these  three  types  to  be  sharply 
marked  off  from  the  others  :  they  shade  into  one  another  by  in- 
sensible gradations.  Thus,  passing  from  the  temperate  regions 
of  Northern  Africa  to  the  tropical  countries  of  the  interior  of  that 
continent,  we  find  the  different  tribes  encountered  exhibiting  a 
"  chromatic  scale  "  that  embraces  all  the  shades  of  color,  from 
the  slightly  bronzed  Caucasian  to  the  jet-black  negro.  Yet  we 
know  that  those  race  characteristics  to  which  we  have  referred, 
though  capable  of  being  greatly  modified  by  climate  and  the  vary- 
ing conditions  of  life,  are  very  persistent.  There  has  been  no 
perceptible  change  in  the  great  types  during  historic  times.  The 
paintings  upon  the  oldest  Egyptian  monuments  show  us  that  at 
the  dawn  of  history,  about  five  or  six  thousand  years  ago,  the 
principal  races  were  as  distinctly  marked  as  now,  each  bearing  its 
racial  badge  of  color  and  physiognomy.  As  early  as  the  times 
of  Jeremiah,  the  permanency  of  physical  characteristics  had  passed 
into  the  proverb,  ''Can  the  Ethiopian  change  his  skin?" 

On  account  of  this  persistent  character  of  form,  complexion, 
and  physiognomy,  these  physical  distinctions  form  a  better  basis 
of  classification  than  language  ;  for  migrations  and  conquests  often 

1  The  Malays  and  American  Indians,  formerly  classified  as  distinct  races, 
are  now  generally  regarded  simply  as  branches  of  the  Yellow  race.  See  table 
at  end  of  chapter. 

2  Tribes  and  nations  are  political,  not  ethnological,  units.  Often  a  nation 
is  a  mixture  of  several  different  peoples  or  even  races;  as,  for  example,  the 
French  nation,  in  which  are  found  Celtic,  Roman,  and  Teutonic  elements; 
and  the  nation  of  the  United  States,  in  which  are  comm'-ngled  peoples  repre- 
senting all  three  of  the  primary  types. 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

result  in  a  people's  giving  up  their  own  and  adopting  a  foreign 
tongue,  while  at  the  same  time  retaining  all  their  physical  pecu- 
liarities. To  efface  these  requires  a  great  lapse  of  time.  Thus 
the  Jews  have  in  general  adopted  the  languages  of  the  different 
peoples  among  whom  they  have  found  a  home ;  but  the  Hebrew 
physiognomy  is  as  marked  to-day  as  it  was  three  thousand  years 
ago. 

Still,  the  study  of  languages  is  often  a  very  great  help  in  deter- 
mining the  relationships  of  different  peoples ;  and  in  some  cases  a 
linguistic  classification,  that  is,  one  based  on  afftnities  of  speech, 
is  more  satisfactory  and  accurate  than  one  based  on  physical 
features.  Thus  we  should  hardly  have  suspected  from  their 
physical  features  that  the  Hindus  are  related  to  us,  but  a  com- 
parative study  of  their  language  and  ours  proves  that  we  are 
akin. 

Traditions,  too,  may  sometimes  cast  hght  upon  a  people's 
origin  or  relationships ;  but  the  legends  of  a  people  have  to  be 
scrutinized  very  carefully  before  they  can  be  received  in  evidence 
on  such  a  point. 

Of  all  the  races,  the  White,  or  Caucasian,  exhibits  by  far  the 
most  perfect  type,  physically,  intellectually,  and  morally.  It  is 
the  race  with  which  we  shall  be  almost  exclusively  concerned,  as 
the  other  two  races,  if  we  except  some  few  nations  of  the  Tura- 
nian stock,  have  not  played  any  great  part  in  the  drama  of  history. 
Possessing  richer  mental  and  spiritual  endowments  than  the  other 
races,  and  animated,  in  most  of  its  branches,  with  a  wonderful 
energy,  the  migrations  and  conquests  of  its  different  peoples,  and 
the  achievements  of  its  various  families  in  the  fields  of  science, 
art,  literature,  philosophy,  and  religion,  fill  most  of  the  pages  of 
the  historian,  and  render  instructive  the  story  he  has  to  tell. 

In  paragraphs  which  follow  we  will  say  something  of  each  of  the 
three  great  branches  into  which  the  White  race  divides  itself;  but 
first  a  word  respecting  the  Turanian  peoples. 

The  Turanian  Peoples.  —  The  term  Turanian  is  very  loosely 
appHed  to  many  and  widely  separated  families  and  peoples.     It  is 


THE  RACES  AND   THEIR  EARLY  MIGRATIONS.  5 

made  to  include  the  Chinese,  and  other  more  or  less  closely  allied 
peoples  of  Eastern  Asia ;  the  Malays,  and  the  people  of  many  of 
the  Pacific  Islands ;  the  nomadic  tribes  of  Central  and  Northern 
Asia  and  of  Eastern  Russia ;  the  Ottoman  Turks,  the  Hungarians, 
the  Finns,  the  Lapps,  and  the  Basques,  in  Europe  ;  and  the  Esqui- 
maux and  American  Indians. 

In  the  remotest  times  the  peoples  of  this  race  had  spread  them- 
selves over  almost  all  Asia,  Europe,  and  North  and  South  i\merica. 
They  were  seemingly  the  first  intruders  upon  these  virgin  conti- 
nents, save  in  some  quarters,  as  in  India,  where  they  seem  to  have 
encountered  a  still  earlier  negro  population.  Whence  they  came, 
or  at  how  early  a  period  they  took  possession  of  the  continents,  we 
cannot  say ;  we  are  only  certain  that  when,  long  before  our  era, 
the  Semites  and  Aryans  left  their  primitive  homes,  perhaps  in 
Central  Asia,  and  went  out  in  search  of  new  abodes,  wherever  they 
went,  in  India,  in  Persia,  in  Mesopotamia,  in  Asia  Minor,  in 
Europe,  and,  later,  in  this  New  World,  they  found  peoples  of  this 
race  already  in  possession  of  the  soil. 

In  these  countries,  these  aboriginal  inhabitants  were,  in  the 
main,  either  exterminated  or  absorbed  by  the  new-comers.  In 
Europe,  however,  two  small  areas  of  this  primitive  population 
escaped  the  common  fate  —  the  Basques,  sheltered  among  the 
Pyrenees,  and  the  Finns  and  Lapps,  in  the  far  North.  (Some 
consider  the  Etrurians  in  Italy  as  another  remnant  of  the  same 
race.)  These  little  patches  of  primitive  population  have  been 
likened  to  islands  rising  above  the  waters  of  a  destructive  inunda- 
tion. The  Hungarians  and  Turks  are  Turanian  peoples  that  have 
thrust  themselves  into  Europe  during  historic  times. 

The  polished  stone  implements  found  in  the  caves  and  river- 
gravels  of  Western  Europe,  the  shell-mounds,  or  kitchen-middens,^ 
upon  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  the  Swiss  lake-habitations,  and  the 

1  "  These  mounds  are  some  five  or  ten  feet  high,  and  in  length  as  much, 
sometimes,  as  a  thousand  feet,  by  one  or  two  hundred  in  breadth.  The  mounds 
consist  for  the  most  part  of  myriads  of  cast-away  shells  of  oysters,  mussels, 
cockles,  and  other  shell-fish."  —  Keary. 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

barrows,  or  grave-mounds,  found  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  are  sup- 
posed to  be  relics  of  a  prehistoric  Turanian  people. 

In  North  America,  also,  a  remnant  of  the  aboriginal  Turanian 
population  is  still  to  be  found  in  the  Indian  tribes  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi ;  while  in  South  and  Central  America  and  in  Mexico  the 
native  Turanian  peoples,  mixed  with  the  white  colonists  (Spaniards 
and  Portuguese),  form  a  considerable  part  of  the  present  population. 

Although  some  of  the  Turanian  peoples,  as,  for  instance,  the 
Chinese  and  the  Magyars,  have  made  considerable  advance  in  civi- 
lization, still  as  a  rule  the  peoples  of  this  race  have  made  but  little 
progress  in  the  arts  and  in  general  culture,  —  perhaps  simply- 
through  lack  of  favoring  circumstances.  Even  their  languages 
have  remained  undeveloped.  These  seem  immature,  or  stunted 
in  their  growth.  They  have  no  declensions  or  conjugations,  like 
those  of  the  languages  of  the  Caucasian  peoples,  but  are  made  up 
of  monosyllables,  or  of  these  merely  "  stuck  together,"  as  it  were, 
and  hence  are  called  agglutinative  languages. 

The  Three  Families  of  the  White  Race.  —  As  has  been  already 
remarked,  the  White,  or  Caucasian,  race  embraces  the  historic 
nations.  This  type  divides  itself  into  three  families,  —  the  Ham- 
itic,  the  Semitic,  and  the  Aryan,  or  Indo-European  (formerly 
called  the  Japhetic).  These  peoples  have  been  the  standard- 
bearers  of  the  advancing  culture  and  civilization  of  the  world. 

The  Hamites.  —  The  ancient  Egyptians  were  the  chief  people 
of  the  Hamitic  branch  of  the  White  race.  They  seem  to  have 
come  from  Asia,  but  we  are  without  any  positive  knowledge 
respecting  their  original  seat  and  their  prehistoric  migrations.  In 
the  gray  dawn  of  history  we  discover  them  already  settled  in  the 
valley  of  the  Nile,  and  there  erecting  great  monuments  so  faultless 
in  construction  as  to  render  it  certain  that  those  who  planned  them 
had  had  a  very  long  previous  training  in  the  art  of  building. 

We  shall  see  hereafter,  as  we  advance  in  our  historical  studies, 
to  how  great  a  degree  the  Semitic  and  especially  the  Aryan  nations 
were  indebted  to  the  Egyptians  for  the  primary  elements  of  their 
learning  and  culture. 


THE  RACES  AND    THEIR  EARLY  MIGRATIONS.  7 

The  Semitic  Peoples.  —  The  Semitic  family  includes  among  its 
chief  peoples  the  ancient  Babylonians  and  Assyrians,  the  Hebrews, 
the  Phoenicians,  and  the  Arabians. 

Some  testimonies  point  to  the  hill  country  (Armenia)  bordering 
the  valley  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  on  the  north,  as  the  origi- 
nal abode  of  this  family.  Yet  it  would  not  be  safe  to  say  that  that 
region  was  its  primitive  seat.  We  only  know  that  by  the  dawn  of 
history  its  various  clans  and  tribes,  whencesoever  they  may  have 
come,  had  distributed  themselves  over  the  greater  part  of  South- 
western Asia. 

In  the  lower  part  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley  they  mingled 
with  the  Turanian  Accadians  already  in  possession  of  the  soil,  and 
formed  the  mixed  people  known  as  the  Chaldseans,  or  Old  Baby- 
lonians. In  the  upper  portion  of  the  Tigris  valley,  they  established 
the  great  Assyrian  empire,  the  princes  of  which  for  centuries  held 
proud  sway  over  most  of  the  peoples  between  the  hills  of  Persia 
and  the  Mediterranean. 

At  the  foot  of  the  Lebanon  mountains,  on  the  Mediterranean 
shore,  another  branch  of  the  Semitic  family  developed  early  into  a 
great  maritime  people,  known  as  the  Phoenicians,  who  carried  the 
elements  of  Egyptian  and  Babylonian  culture  to  the  young  Aryan 
nations  of  Europe. 

Of  the  early  movements  of  the  ancestors  of  the  Hebrews,  we  have 
some  knowledge  from  their  sacred  writings.  About  eighteen  or 
twenty  centuries  before  our  era,  religious  reasons,  probably,  led  a 
Semitic  clan,  called  the  Abrahamic,  to  separate  themselves  from 
kindred  tribes  then  dwelling  near  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
and  to  go  out  in  search  of  new  abodes.  Their  patriarch  Abraham, 
who  was  inspired  with  a  grand  faith  in  the  God  Jehovah,  whom  he 
served,  led  the  little  company  across  the  Mesopotamian  plains, 
and  up  into  the  country  afterwards  known  as  Palestine.  Famine 
and  other  circumstances  drove  his  descendants  forward  into  Egypt. 
After  a  long  sojourn  in  that  country,  during  which  they  had  in- 
creased greaUy  in  numbers,  they  returned  to  Palestine,  drove  out 
or  exterminated  the  Canaanitish  (chiefly  Semitic)   inhabitants  of 


8  INTR  OD  UC  TION. 

the  land,  and  grew  into  the  great  Hebrew  nation,  which  was  des- 
tined to  exert  a  moulding  influence  upon  the  religion  and  civiliza- 
tion of  the  world. 

It  was  not  until  the  beginning  of  the  Mediaeval  period  that  the 
Arabian  tribes  assumed  any  important  part  in  the  transactions  of 
history.  Then,  under  the  name  of  Saracens,  and  as  teachers  of  a 
new  faith,  called  from  its  founder  Mohammedanism,  they  issued 
from  the  deserts  of  the  Arabian  peninsula,  and  swiftly  spread  their 
authority  and  religion  over  large  regions  of  the  three  continents  of 
the  eastern  hemisphere. 

We  must  not  fail  here  to  note  that  the  three  great  historic  relig- 
ions of  the  world,  —  the  Hebrew,  the  Christian,  and  the  Moham- 
medan, —  the  three  religions  that  alone  (if  we  except  that  of 
Zoroaster)  teach  a  belief  in  one  God,  arose  among  peoples  be- 
longing to  the  Semitic  race.  If  races  have  missions,  then  we  may 
say  that  the  mission  of  this  race  has  been  to  teach  religion. 

The  Aryan  Family.  —  The  Aryan,  or  Indo-European,  though 
probably  the  youngest,  is  the  most  widely  scattered  family  of  the 
White  race.  It  includes  among  its  members  the  ancient  Hindus, 
Medes,  and  Persians,  the  classic  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the 
modern  descendants  of  all  these  nations ;  also  the  Celtic,  Teu- 
tonic, and  Slavonic  peoples  of  Europe,  and  their  colonists  that 
have  peopled  the  New  World,  and  taken  possession  of  other  parts 
of  the  earth. 

Migrations  of  the  Aryans. — The  original  seat  of  the  Aryan 
peoples  was,  it  is  conjectured,^  the  highlands  of  Central  Asia,  east 
of  the  Caspian  Sea  and  north  of  the  Hindu  Kush  Mountains. 
This  upland  country,  now  for  the  most  part  arid  and  uninviting, 
seems  to  have  been  in  remote  times  a  delightful  region,  that  drew 
forth  unbounded  praise  from  the  early  Aryan  poets.  Gradual 
changes  in  the  cHmate,  which  rendered  the  country  inhospitable, 
pressure  of  population,  and  religious  disputes  and  wars  caused  the 
Aryan  household,  at  a  period  that  cannot  be  placed  later  than 
3000  B.C.,  to  begin  to  break  up  and  scatter,  and  the  different  clans 
to  set  out  in  search  of  new  dwelling-places. 

1  Some  scholars  seek  the  primitive  home  in  Europe. 


THE  RACES  AND    THEIR  EARLY  MIGRATIONS.  9 

One  branch  of  the  family,  called  the  Indo-Iranic,  the  ancestors 
of  the  Hindus  and  the  Persians,  turning  from  the  primitive  home, 
moved  southward,  and,  for  a  long  time  after  separation  from  the 
other  members  of  the  household,  lived  together  as  one  family, 
united  in  a  single  faith  and  worship.  But  differences  in  religious 
belief  arising,  caused,  so  some  suppose,  by  the  teachings  of  the 
great  prophet  Zoroaster,  the  company  was  divided  into  two  bands, 
which  parted  abruptly  the  one  from  the  other.  One  of  these, 
holding  on  their  way  to  the  south,  climbed  the  snowy  passes  of 
the  Hindu  Kush,  which  lay  in  their  path,  and  descending  upon 
the  plains  beyond,  drove  out  or  subjugated  the  non- Aryan  tribes 
they  found  occupying  the  land,  and  became  the  ancestors  of  the 
Hindus.  The  other  company  turned  to  the  southwest,  and 
spreading  themselves  over  the  table-lands  of  Iran,  became  the 
progenitors  of  the  Medes  and  Persians. 

About  the  time  of  these  migrations  to  the  south  and  southwest, 
other  clans  set  their  faces  towards  Europe.  The  journey  of  these 
families  was  long  and  eventful.  The  stream  of  migi-ation  that  set 
in  this  direction  was  divided  into  two  branches.  One  division, 
skirting  probably  the  southern  shore  of  the  Euxine,  and  entering 
Europe  by  the  way  of  the  Hellespont,  pushed  themselves  into  the 
peninsulas  of  Greece  and  Italy,  and  founded  the  Greek  and  Italian 
states. 

The  second  division  seems  to  have  passed  to  the  north  of  the 
Black  Sea,  and  crossing  the  rivers  that  lay  in  their  path,  to  have 
poured  in  successive  waves  into  Central  Europe.  The  vanguard 
of  these  tribes  are  known  as  the  Celts.  After  them  came  the 
Teutonic  tribes,  who  crowded  the  former  out  on  the  westernmost 
edge  of  Europe — up  into  the  corners  of  France  and  out  upon  the 
British  Isles.  These  hard-pressed  Celts  are  represented  to-day 
by  the  Welsh,  the  Irish,  and  the  Highland  Scots.  Behind  the 
Teutonic  peoples  were  the  Slavonic  folk,  who  pushed  the  former 
hard  against  the  Celts,  and,  when  they  could  urge  them  no  farther 
to  the  west,  finally  settled  down  and  became  the  ancestors  of  the 
Russians,  Bohemians,  Poles,  Servians,  and  other  kindred  nations. 


10  INTR  on  UC  TION. 

Although  these  migratory  movements  of  the  various  clans  and 
tribes  of  this  wonderful  Aryan  family  commenced  in  the  early 
morning  of  history,  some  five  thousand  years  ago,  still  we  must 
not  think  of  them  as  something  past  and  unrelated  to  the  present. 
These  movements,  begun  in  those  remote  times,  are  still  going  on. 
The  overflow  of  the  population  of  Europe  into  the  different  regions 
of  the  New  World  is  simply  a  continuance  of  the  outpourings  of 
the  primitive  Aryan  household  into  the  surrounding  countries. 

Everywhere  the  other  races  and  families  have  given  way  before 
the  advance  of  the  Aryan  peoples,  or  have  been  absorbed  by  them. 
Having  possessed  themselves  of  the  riches  of  the  Hamitic  and 
Semitic  civilizations,  —  having  made  their  own  the  wisdom  of  the 
Egyptians,  the  arts  of  the  Assyrians,  the  religion  of  the  Hebrews, 
—  they  have  assumed  the  position  of  leaders  and  teachers  among 
the  families  of  mankind,  and  are  rapidly  spreading  their  arts  and 
sciences  and  culture  over  the  earth. 

Early  Culture  of  the  Aryans.  —  One  of  the  most  fascinating 
studies  of  recent  growth  is  that  which  reveals  to  us  the  customs 
and  behefs  of  the  early  Aryan  peoples  while  their  ancestors  were 
yet  living  together  as  a  single  household,  perhaps  in  Asia.  Upon 
comparing  the  myths,  legends,  ballads,  and  nursery  tales  of  the 
different  Aryan  peoples,  we  discover  the  curious  fact  that,  under 
various  disguises,  they  are  the  same.  Jack  the  Giant-killer  with 
his  "seven-league  boots"  is  identical  with  the  Greek  Hermes  with 
his  winged  sandals.  William  Tell  with  his  unerring  aim  is  the 
Greek  archer-god  Apollo  with  his  "  twanging  bow."  And  many 
of  our  nursery  tales  are  found  to  be  identical  even  with  those  with 
which  the  Hindu  children  are  amused.  But  the  discovery  should 
not  surprise  us.  We  and  the  Hindus  are  kinsmen,  children  of  the 
same  home ;  so  now,  when  after  a  long  separation  we  meet,  the 
tales  we  tell  are  the  same,  for  they  are  the  stories  that  were  told 
around  the  common  hearth-fire  of  our  Aryan  forefathers. 

And  when  we  compare  certain  words  in  different  Aryan  lan- 
guages, we  often  find  them  alike  in  form  and  meaning.  Thus  take 
our  word  father.     This  word   occurs  with  but   little    change    of 


THE  RACES  AND   THEIR  EARLY  MIGRATIONS.  \\ 

form  in  several  of  the  Aryan  tongues  :  Sanscrit,  pitri ;  Persian, 
padar;  Greek,  Trarr/p  (pater)  ;  Latin,  pater ;  German,  vater. 
Such  words  as  this,  preserved  in  modified  forms  in  the  strata  of 
language,  are  to  the  philologist  what  fossils,  buried  in  the  strata  of 
the  earth,  are  to  the  geologist.  They  tell  the  past  story  of  man. 
Thus  the  different  Aryan  forms  of  the  word  for  father  bear  testi- 
mony to  the  fact  that  the  remote  ancestors  of  the  now  widely 
separated  Aryan  peoples  once  Uved  together  and  spoke  a  common 
tongue. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  prehistoric  culture  of  the  Aryans,  gained 
by  the  sciences  of  comparative  philology  and  mythology,  may  be 
summed  up  as  follows  :  They  personified  and  worshipped  the 
various  forces  and  parts  of  the  physical  universe,  such  as  the 
Sun,  the  Dawn,  Fire,  the  Winds,  the  Clouds.  The  all-embracing 
sky  they  worshipped  as  the  Heaven-Father  (Dyaus-Pitar),  who 
bore  the  same  relation  to  the  other  deities  as  the  later  Greek  Zeus 
bore  to  the  other  Grecian  gods. 

They  were  herdsmen  and  at  least  occasional  farmers.  "  Their 
wealth  was  reckoned  in  cows,  and  cows  were  the  circulating^ 
medium,  with  sheep  and  pigs  for  small  change."  They  introduced 
the  sheep,  as  well  as  the  horse,  into  Europe.  (The  Turanian 
people  whom  they  displaced  had  neither  of  these  domestic  ani- 
mals.) They  kept  bees  and  got  intoxicated  upon  a  beverage 
made  from  the  honey.  "Their  wheat  was  cut  with  the  sickle, 
threshed  and  winnowed,  and  carried  to  mill  in  wagons  fitted  with 
wheels  and  axletrees.  .  .  .  Sewing  and  spinning  were  feminine 
occupations,  and  garments  were  woven  out  of  sheep's  wool.  The 
art  of  tanning  was  also  practised,  and  leather  shoes  were  worn." 
(Fiske.) 

They  were  fair  builders,  and  navigated  the  rivers  and  inland 
seas  of  their  region  with  canoes  or  skiffs.  They  rode  in  wagons, 
but  did  not  ride  horseback.  They  were  versed  in  the  art  of  war, 
and  had  made  beginnings  in  astronomy  and  mathematics. 

In  social  life  they  had  advanced  to  that  stage  where  the  family 
is  the  unit  of  society.     The  father  was  the  priest  and  absolute 


1 2  INTR  OD  UC  TTON. 

lord  of  his  house.  The  children  were  given  names  expressive  of 
love  and  endearment.  The  families  were  united  to  form  village- 
communities,  ruled  by  a  chief,  or  patriarch,  who  was  assisted  by 
a  council  of  elders. 

Importance  of  Aryan  Studies.  —  This  picture  of  life  in  the 
early  Aryan  home,  the  elements  of  which  are  gathered  in  so  novel 
a  way,  is  of  the  very  greatest  historical  value  and  interest.  In 
these  customs  and  beliefs  of  the  early  Aryans,  we  discover  the 
germs  of  many  of  the  institutions  of  the  classical  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  of  the  nations  of  modern  Europe.  Thus,  in  the 
council  of  elders  around  the  village  patriarch,  political  historians 
trace  the  beginnings  of  the  senates  of  Greece  and  Rome  and  the 
national  parliaments  of  later  times. 

Just  as  the  teachings  of  the  parental  roof  mould  the  life  and 
character  of  the  children .  that  go  out  from  under  its  discipline,  so 
have  the  influences  of  that  early  Aryan  home  shaped  the  habits, 
institutions,  and  character  of  those  peoples  and  famihes  that,  as 
its  children,  went  out  to  establish  new  homes  in  their  "  appointed 
habitations." 


RACES  OF  MANKIND. 


13 


RACES  OF  MANKIND,  WITH  CHIEF  FAMILIES  AND  PEOPLES. 


Black  Race 
(Ethiopian,  or 
Negro). 


Yellow  Race 
(Turanian,   or 
Mongolian). 


\  Tribes  of  Central  and  Southern  Africa,  the  Papuans  and 
]  the  Australians.  (This  group  includes  two  great  divis- 
1       ions,  the  Negroid  and  Australoid.) 


(i)  The  Chinese,  Burmese,  Japanese,  and  other  kindred 
peoples  of  Eastern  Asia;  (2)  the  Malays  of  Southeastern 
Asia,  and  the  inhabitants  of  many  of  the  Pacific  islands; 
(3)  the  nomads  (Tartars,  Mongols,  etc.)  of  Northern 
and  Central  Asia  and  of  Eastern  Russia;  (4)  the  Turks, 
the  Mag)'ars,  or  Hungarians,  the  Finns  and  Lapps,  and 
the  Basques,  in  Europe;  (5)  the  Esquimaux  and  the 
American  Indians.  Languages  of  these  peoples  are 
monosyllabic  or  agglutinative.  (Note  that  the  Malays 
and  American  Indians  were  formerly  classified  as  dis- 
tinct races.) 


White  Race 
(Caucasian). 


Hamitic 
Family 


Semitic 
Family 


f  Egyptians, 
-|  Libyans, 
[  Cushites. 

Chaldaeans  (partly  Turanian), 

Assyrians, 

Babylonians, 

Canaanites  (chiefly), 

Phoenicians, 

Hebrews, 

Arabs. 


'  Indo-Iranic  Branch 


Grceco-Italic  Branch 


Aryan,  or 
Indo-Eu- 
ropean, 
Family 


\  Celtic  Branch 


Teutonic  Branch 


Slavonic  Branch 


\  Hindus, 
\  Medes, 
[  Persians. 
(  Greeks, 
(  Romans, 
r  Gauls, 
J  Britons, 
\  Scots  (Irish), 
I  Picts. 

f  High  Germans, 
\  Low  Germans, 
[  Scandinavians. 
/  Russians, 
\  Poles,  etc. 


The  peoples  of  modern  Germany  are  the  descendants  of  various  Germanic  tribes.  The 
Swedes,  Norwegians,  and  Danes  represent  the  Scandinavian  branch  of  the  Teutonic  family. 
The  Irish,  the  Welsh,  the  Scotch  Highlanders,  and  the  Bretons  of  Brittany  (anciently  Armor- 
ica),  in  France,  are  the  present  representatives  of  the  ancient  Celts.  The  French,  Spaniards, 
Portuguese,  and  Italians  have  sprung,  in  the  main,  from  a  blending  of  the  Celts,  the  ancient 
Romans,  and  the  Germanic  tribes  that  thrust  themselves  within  the  limits  of  the  Roman 
Empire  in  the  West.  The  English  are  the  descendants  of  the  Angles,  Saxons,  and  Jutes 
(Teutonic  tribes),  slightly  modified  by  interminglings  with  the  Danes  and  Normans  (see 
Mediceval  and  Moder7i  History,  pp.  169-178). 


/ 


Part    I. 

THE   EASTERN  NATIONS   AND    GREECE. 


SECTION  I  —THE  EASTERN  NATIONS. 

CHAPTER    I. 

POLITICAL   HISTORY   OF   ANCIENT   EGYPT. 

(From  unknown  antiquity  to  527  B.C.) 

Egypt  and  the  Nile.  —  Herodotus,  who  often  used  happy 
phrases,  called  Egypt  "  the  gift  of  the  Nile."  Before  historic 
times,  what  is  now  the  Great  Sahara  was  covered  by  the  waters  of 
the  Atlantic.  Geologic  changes  at  last  lifted  the  rocky  sea-floor 
—  covered,  for  the  most  part,  with  a  heavy  mantle  of  sand  —  and 
it  became  the  Libyan  desert.  The  Nile  then  flowed  through  a 
long,  narrow,  hill-bordered  valley  to  the  Mediterranean,  which  in 
those  early  times  formed  a  deep  bay  where  now^  is  Lower  Egypt. 
At  each  annual  rise  of  the  river,  caused  by  the  tropical  summer 
rains  among  the  Abyssinian  mountains,  a  thin  layer  of  sediment 
was  deposited  over  the  narrow  strip  of  submerged  land  along 
either  bank  of  the  stream.^  Not  until  from  forty  to  seventy  feet 
of  sediment  had  been  laid  down  upon  the  limestone  floor  of  the 
valley  did  it  become  the  seat  of  that  wonderful  civilization  whose 
monuments  have  come  down  to  us ;  although  from  fragments  ol 
pottery  found  in  the  very  lowest  strata  of  the  river  sediment,  we 

1  The  valley  has  a  varying  breadth  of  from  two  to  eleven  miles.  The  rate 
of  the  fluviatile  deposit  is  from  three  to  five  inches  in  a  century.  The  country 
at  Thebes,  as  shown  by  the  accumulations  about  the  monuments,  has  been 
raised  seven  feet  during  the  last  seventeen  hundred  years. 


16  POLITICAL   HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 

believe  the  valley  to  have  been  occupied  by  man  many  ages  before 
that  time. 

Besides  covering  with  a  deep  soil  the  bottom  of  its  narrow  val- 
ley, the  Nile  has  also  built  up  at  its  mouth  a  great  delta,  through 
which  it  now  seeks  the  sea  by  several  different  channels.  This 
delta  country  was  known  to  the  ancients  as  Lower  Egypt ;  while 
the  valley  proper,  reaching  from  the  head  of  the  delta  to  the  First 
Cataract,  a  distance  of  six  hundred  miles,  was  called  Upper  Egypt. 

Inundation  of  the  Nile.  —  Through  the  same  means  by  which 
Egypt  was  originally  created  is  the  land  each  year  still  renewed 
and  fertilized.  The  Nile  begins  to  rise  in  its  lower  parts  late  in 
June,  and  by  the  end  of  September,  when  the  inundation  has  at- 
tained its  greatest  height,  the  country  presents  the  appearance  of 
an  inland  sea,  with  the  villages  of  the  natives,  which  are  built  upon 
artificial  hills  or  protected  by  dikes,  rising  like  little  islands  above 
the  water.  The  ordinary  rise  at  the  first  cataract  is  about  forty 
feet,  and  at  Cairo  from  twenty-four  to  twenty-five  feet.^ 

By  the  end  of  November  the  river  has  returned  to  its  bed,  and 
the  fields,  over  which  has  been  spread  a  film  of  rich  earth,  present 
the  appearance  of  black  mud- flats.  Usually  the  plow  is  run  lightly 
over  the  soft  surface,  but  in  some  cases  the  grain  is  sown  upon  the 
undisturbed  deposit,  and  simply  trampled  in  by  flocks  of  sheep 
and  goats  driven  over  it.  In  a  few  weeks  the  entire  land,  so  re- 
cently a  flooded  plain,  is  overspread  with  a  sea  of  verdure,  which 
forms  a  striking  contrast  with  the  desert  sands  and  barren  hills 
that  rim  the  valley. 

Climate.  —  In  Lower  Egypt,  near  the  sea,  the  rainfall  in  the 
winter  is  abundant ;  but  the  chmate  of  Upper  Egypt  is  all  but 
rainless,  only  a  few  slight  showers  falling  throughout  the  year. 
This  dryness  of  the  Egyptian  air  is  what  has  preserved  through  so 
many  thousands  of  years,  in  such  wonderful  freshness  of  color  and 

1  In  ancient  times  the  distribution  of  the  water  was  aided  by  an  extensive 
system  of  dikes,  canals,  and  reservoirs.  Through  neglect,  many  of  the  old 
canals  are  now  choked  with  sand  and  the  reservoirs  broken,  so  that  not  more 
than  two-thirds  of  the  land  formerly  under  cultivation  is  to-day  tilled. 


Jerusalem 


ALEXANDRIA 


ANCIENT 

EGYPT. 


Second  Cataract  f  f 


CATARACTS  OF  THE  NILE.  17 

with  such  sharpness  of  outUne,  the  numerous  paintings  and  sculp- 
tures of  the  palaces  and  tombs  of  the  Pharaohs. 

The  southern  line  of  Egypt  only  just  touches  the  tropics ;  still 
the  climate,  influenced  by  the  wide  and  hot  deserts  that  hem  the 
valley,  is  semi-tropical  in  character.  The  fruits  of  the  tropics  and 
the  cereals  of  the  temperate  zone  grow  luxuriantly.  Thus  favored 
in  climate  as  well  as  in  the  matter  of  irrigation,  Egypt  became  in 
early  times  the  granary  of  the  East.  To  it  less  favored  countries, 
when  stricken  by  famine  —  a  calamity  so  common  in  the  East  in 
regions  dependent  upon  the  rainfall  —  looked  for  food,  as  did  the 
families  of  Israel  during  drought  and  failure  of  crops  in  Palestine. 

Cataracts  of  the  Nile.  —  About  seven  hundred  miles  from  the 
Mediterranean  a  low  ledge  of  rocks,  stretching  across  the  Nile, 
forms  the  first  obstruction  to  navigation  in  passing  up  the  river. 
The  rapids  found  at  this  point  are  termed  the  First  Cataract.  Six 
other  cataracts  occur  in  the  next  seven  hundred  miles  of  the 
river's  course.  The  sacred  islands  of  Elephantine  and  Philae  lie, 
the  former  just  below,  and  the  latter  just  above,  the  First  Cataract. 
One  hundred  miles  below  Elephantine,  the  limestone  hills  recede 
from  the  river  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  an  amphitheatral  plain 
about  twelve  miles  across.  This  region  is  called  the  Thebaid,  and 
is  now  filled  with  the  ruins  of  "hundred-gated  Thebes." 

South  of  the  First  Cataract  lay  Ethiopia,  a  land  of  very  shadowy 
boundaries.  The  northern  part  of  the  region  was  debatable 
ground  between  the  Ethiopians  and  the  Egyptians ;  yet  during  the 
best  days  of  the  Pharaohs  they  extended  their  authority  perma- 
nently far  beyond  the  first  rapids,  as  is  attested  by  the  ruins  that 
Hne  the  banks  of  the  Upper  Nile  —  the  designation  given  the 
river  above  the  First  Cataract. 

Dynasties  and  Chronology.  —  The  kings,  or  Pharaohs,  that 
reigned  in  Egypt  from  the  earliest  times  till  the  conquest  of  the 
country  by  Alexander  (b.c.  332),  are  grouped  into  thirty-one 
dynasties.  Thirty  of  these  we  find  in  the  lists  of  Manetho,  an 
Egyptian  priest  who  lived  in  the  third  century  B.C.,  and  who  wrote 
a  history  of  Egypt,  compiled  from  the  manuscripts  kept  in  the 


18  POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 

archives  of  the  Egyptian  temples.  Unfortunately,  all  of  this 
chronicle  is  lost,  save  mere  fragments  preserved  in  the  works  of 
later  writers.  In  connection  with  each  dynasty,  Manetho  gives 
the  length  of  the  reign  of  the  family,  and  usually  the  names  of  the 
kings  comprising  it.^ 

We  cannot  assign  a  positive  date  to  the  beginning  of  the  First 
Dynasty  ;  for  Egyptologists  are  at  a  loss  to  know  whether  to  con- 
sider the  dynasties  of  Manetho's  list  as  all  successive  or  in  part 
contemporaneous.  Thus,  it  is  held  by  some  scholars  that  several 
of  these  families  were  reigning  at  the  same  time  in  This,  Elephan- 
tine, Thebes,  Memphis,  Tanis,  and  Sais  —  the  different  capitals  of 
Upper  and  Lower  Egypt ;  while  others  think  that  they  all  reigned 
at  different  epochs,  and  that  the  sum  of  the  lengths  of  the  several 
dynasties  gives  us  the  true  date  of  the  beginning  of  the  era  of 
Menes.  Furthermore,  Manetho  made  no  account  of  the  over- 
lapping of  reigns ;  for  it  was  the  custom  for  a  Pharaoh,  in  the 
latter  years  of  his  reign,  to  share  the  government  with  the  son  who 
was  to  succeed  him,  and  then  this  son,  in  his  inscriptions,  reck- 
oned his  reign  from  the  time  of  his  first  participation  in  the  gov- 
ernment. Accordingly,  Mariette  and  Lenormant  place  the  begin- 
ning of  the  First  Dynasty  at  5004  B.C.,  and  others  still  earlier,^ 
while  Poole  and  Wilkinson  put  it  at  about  2700  B.C.  The  con- 
stantly growing  evidence  of  the  monuments  is  in  favor  of  the 
higher  figures.'^ 

As  in  journeying  up  the  Nile  the  traveller  passes  without  delay 

1  In  addition  to  Manetho's  list,  we  have  that  of  the  so-called  Turin  Papy- 
rus. This  document,  however,  besides  being  badly  mutilated,  gives  no  names 
after  the  time  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty,  the  date  of  its  compilation.  The 
lists  furnished  by  the  monumental  inscriptions  are  very  incomplete,  and  possess 
little  or  no  chronological  value. 

^  A  comparison  of  authorities  will  be  interesting.  Bdckh  gives  as  the  date 
of  Menes  5702;  Unger,  5613;  Brugsch,  4455;  Lauth,  4157;  Lepsius,  3852; 
Bunsen,  3623  —  later  3059;   Poole,  2717;   Wilkinson,  2691. 

2  "  The  scholars  who  have  attempted  to  compress  the  dates  given  by  Ma- 
netho have  never  yet  been  able  to  produce  one  single  monument  to  prove  that 
two  dynasties  named  in  his  lists  as  successive  were  contemporary.     On  the 


MENES,  EO  UNDER   OF  THE   OLD  EMPIRE.  19 

the  long  monotonous  reaches  of  the  river,  and  stops  only  when  his 
attention  is  arrested  by  a  group  of  famous  pyramids  or  the  ruins 
of  some  celebrated  temple,  so  shall  we  pass  without  notice  the 
long  uneventful  periods  in  these  thirty-one  dynasties,  and  stop 
only  when  we  reach  some  great  name,  some  important  conquest, 
or  some  significant  event.  These  shall  be  our  landmarks  along 
this  great  dynastic  stream,  which  flows  through  more  than  half  the 
historic  centuries  of  the  world. 

Menes,  Founder  of  the  Old  Empire.  —  Menes  is  the  first  kingly 
personage,  shadowy  and  indistinct  in  form,  that  we  discover  in 
the  first  dawn  of  Egyptian  history.  This  king  holds  the  same 
relation  to  the  beginnings  of  political  life  and  organized  society 
in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  that  Sargon  I.  sustains  to  these  same 
matters  in  the  valley  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  (see  p.  60). 
Tradition  makes  him  the  founder  of  Memphis,  near  the  head  of 
the  Delta,  the  site  of  which  capital  he  secured  against  the  inunda- 
tions of  the  Nile  by  vast  dikes  and  various  engineering  works.  To 
him  is  ascribed  the  achievement  of  first  consolidating  the  numer- 
ous petty  principalities  of  Lower  Egypt  into  a  single  state,  known 
as  the  Old  Empire,  which  existed  with  varying  fortunes  for  at  least 
a  thousand  years. 

The  Pyramid  Kings  (about  2700  b.c).  —  The  kings  of  the 
Fourth  Dynasty,  who  reigned  at  Memphis,  are  called  the  Pyramid- 
builders.^  "With  them  the  real  history  of  Egypt  begins."  Tra- 
dition and  the  monuments  here  unite  their  testimony.  Suphis 
(Khufu)  L,  the  Cheops  of  the  Greeks,  was  the  first  great  builder. 
To  him  we  can  now  positively  ascribe  the  building  of  the  Great 
Pyramid,  the  largest  of  the  Gizeh  group ;  for  his  name  has  been 
found  upon  some  of  the  stones, — painted  on  them  by  his  work- 
men before  the  blocks  were  taken  from  the  quarries. 

contrary,  there  are  abundant  proofs,  collected  by  very  many  Egyptologists, 
to  convince  us  that  all  the  royal  races  enumerated  by  the  Sebennytic  priest 
occupied  the  throne  in  succession."  —  Mariette. 

1  Not  that  they  were  the  only  Pyramid-builders,  but  because  they  erected 
the  largest  of  the  pyramids  (see  p.  42). 


20  POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 

Others  of  this  famous  group  of  pyramids  were  raised  by  Khafra 
and  Menkara,  successors  of  Cheops.  To  some  king  of  this  family 
is  also  ascribed,  by  some  authorities,  the  sculpture  of  the  Sphinx 
at  the  foot  of  the  Great  Pyramid.  The  most  astonishing  feature 
of  the  monuments  of  these  early  Pharaohs  is  the  remarkable 
perfection  of  the  sciences  and  arts  exhibited  in  their  construc- 
tion. 

These  mountains  of  stone  heaped  together  by  the  Pyramid  kings 
are  proof  that  they  were  cruel  oppressors  of  their  people,  and 
burdened  them  with  useless  labor  upon  these  monuments  of  their 
ambition.  Tradition  tells  how  the  very  memory  of  these  mon- 
archs  was  hated  by  the  people.  Herodotus  says  that  the  Egyp- 
tians did  not  like  even  to  speak  the  names  of  the  builders  of 
the  two  largest  pyramids.  The  statues  of  Khafra,  the  builder 
of  the  second  pyramid  of  the  Gizeh  group,  have  been  discovered, 
broken  into  small  pieces,  at  the  bottom  of  a  well  near  the 
Sphinx,  into  which,  as  is  conjectured  by  some,  the  enraged 
people  had  thrown  them  during  a  political  revolution,  soon  after 
his  death. 

The  Twelfth  Dynasty  (about  2300  b.c).  —  After  the  Sixth 
Dynasty,^  Egypt  seems  to  have  become  divided  into  a  number 
of  small  kingdoms,  of  which  we  know  practically  nothing,  save  the 
names  of  some  of  the  kings.  For  several  centuries  the  land  is 
lost  from  view.  When  finally  the  valley  emerges  from  the  obscur- 
ity of  this  period,  the  old  capital  Memphis  has  receded  into  the 
background,  and  the  city  of  Thebes  has  taken  its  place  as  the 
seat  of  the  royal  power. 

1  The  really  great  name  of  this  family  is  that  of  the  conqueror  Pepi,  but- 
tradition  and  romance  have  lifted  into  greatest  prominence  the  name  of 
Queen  Nitocris,  who  is  represented  as  being  the  last  of  the  house.  Nitocris 
is  the  heroine  of  Egyptian  legend,  and  the  original  of  the  Cinderella  of 
fairy  romance.  But,  notwithstanding  the  myths  that  have  gathered  about 
her  name,  it  is  believed  that  we  may  regard  her  as  a  real  historical  personage, 
and  think  of  her  as  the  only  female  sovereign  who  ever  sat  as  a  sole  ruler 
upon  the  throne  of  the  ancient  Pharaohs. 


THE    TWELFTH  DYNASTY.  21 

The  period  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty,  a  line  of  Theban  kings,  is 
one  of  the  brightest  in  Egyptian  history.  Many  monuments 
scattered  throughout  the  country  perpetuate  the  fame  of  the 
Amenemhats  and  Usurtasens  of  this  illustrious  house.  Egyptian 
civilization  is  regarded  by  many  as  having  during  this  period 
reached  the  highest  perfection  to  which  it  ever  attained. 

Under  Usurtasen  III.,  a  ruler  of  marked  military  capacity,  all 
the  valley  of  the  Nile  between  the  First  and  the  Second  Cataract, 
for  the  possession  of  which  the  Egyptian  princes  had  long  con- 
tended with  negro  and  Cushite  (Ethiopian)  tribes,  was  made  a 
part  of  the  empire  of  the  Pharaohs. 

The  name  of  Amenemhat  III.  has  been  rendered  especially 
well-known  through  being  connected  with  supposed  great  engi- 
neering works  —  the  celebrated  reservoir  known  to  the  classic 
writers  as  Lake  Moeris  —  in  the  present  district  of  the  Fayoom  ;  ^ 
and  with  the  famous  and  mysterious  Labyrinth,  which  Herodotus 
thought  to  surpass  even  the  Pyramids.     The  historian's  account 

1  This  region,  which  is  essentially  an  oasis,  embraces  a  remarkable  depres- 
sion, about  four  hundred  square  miles  in  extent,  in  the  desert  to  the  west  of 
the  Nile,  about  fifty  miles  above  the  apex  of  the  Delta.  Some  portions  of 
these  Egyptian  Netherlands  are  depressed  more  than  one  hundred  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  Nile.  It  has  been  believed,  chiefly  on  the  authority  of  Herod- 
otus (see  Rawlinson's  Herodotus,  Book  II.  chap.  149),  that  Amenemhat  III., 
acting  upon  the  hint  given  by  nature,  here  constructed  an  enormous  reservoir, 
covering  about  ninety  square  miles,  for  the  reception  of  the  surplus  waters  of 
the  inundation,  which  were  drawn  off  into  the  basin  through  an  opening, 
partially  artificial,  in  the  ridge  separating  the  depression  from  the  river  plain. 
By  means  of  a  system  of  canals  and  flood-gates,  the  waters,  it  is  said,  were  dis- 
tributed as  needed  over  the  depressed  lands,  as  well  as  over  a  considerable 
district  along  the  western  edge  of  the  Nile  valley. 

But  "  recent  explorations,"  writes  M.  Maspero,  **  have  proved  that  the  dikes 
by  which  this  pretended  reservoir  was  bounded  are  modern  works,  erected 
probably  within  the  last  two  hundred  years.  I  no  longer  believe  that  Lake 
Moeris  ever  existed.  If  Herodotus  did  actually  visit  the  Fayoom,  it  was 
probably  in  summer,  at  the  time  of  the  high  Nile,  when  the  whole  district 
presents  the  appearance  of  an  inland  sea.  What  he  took  for  the  shores  of 
this  lake  were  the  embankments  which  divided  it  into  basins  and  acted  as 
highways  between  the  various  towns."  —  Egyptian  Archcsology,  p.  36. 


22  POLITICAL  HISTORY  OI^  ANCIENT  EGYPT- 

of  the  former  work  has  been  discredited  by  some  Egyptologists, 
and  his  description  of  the  latter,  which  was  probably  only  a  palace, 
was  doubtless  overwrought. 

Particularly  interesting  monuments  dating  from  this  Twelfth 
Dynasty  are  the  rock-sepulchres  of  Beni- Hassan.  They  were 
constructed  by  a  family  of  hereditary  provincial  governors,  or 
great  feudal  lords,  who  flourished  under  the  earlier  kings  of  the 
house.  The  elaborate  sculptures  and  paintings  upon  the  walls  of 
these  rock-chambers  form  a  most  instrucdve  picture  of  the  life  and 
manners  of  the  times. 

The  Hyksos,  or  Shepherd  Kings  (from  about  2100  to  1650 
B.C.).  —  Soon  after  the  bright  period  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty, 
Egypt  suffered  a  great  eclipse.  Under  the  kings  of  the  Four- 
teenth Dynasty,  the  royal  power  declined,  and  the  country  was 
divided  apparently  into  several  petty  principalities,  and  thus  pre- 
vented from  using  its  undivided  strength  to  repel  invasion. 

Such  united  effort  was  needed ;  for  just  at  this  time  the  nomadic 
tribes  of  Syria,  being  hard-pushed,  perhaps  by  the  growing  empires 
of  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley,  crossed  the  eastern  frontiers  of 
Egypt,  took  possession  of  the  inviting  pasture-lands  of  the  Delta, 
and  established  there  the  Empire  of  the  Shepherd  Kings.  These 
rulers  gradually  extended  their  authority  up  the  Nile,  and  the 
Theban  kings  were  forced  to  seek  refuge  in  Ethiopia  —  a  country, 
as  we  have  already  learned,  lying  across  the  Upper  Nile. 

These  Asiatic  intruders,  "Tartars  of  the  South,"  as  they  have 
been  called,  were  violent  and  barbarous,  and  destroyed  or  mutilated 
the  monuments  of  the  conquered  Egyptians.  But  gradually  they 
were  transformed  by  the  civilization  with  which  they  were  in  con- 
tact, and  in  time  they  adopted  the  manners,  customs,  and  culture 
of  the  Egyptians.  Then  they  seem  to  have  set  themselves  to  the 
work  of  restoring  the  monuments  they  had  mutilated,  and  of  erect- 
ing new  structures. 

It  was  probably  during  the  supremacy  of  the  Hyksos  that  the 
families  of  Israel  found  a  refuge  in  Lower  Egypt.  They  received 
a  kind  reception  from  the  Shepherd  Kings,  not  only  because  they 


AMOSIS,  FOUNDER   OF  THE  NEW  EMPIRE.  23 

were  of  the  same  pastoral  habits,  but  also  probably  because  of  near 
kinship  in  race. 

At  last  these  intruders,  after  they  had  ruled  in  the  valley  four 
hundred  years  (some  say  two  hundred),  were  expelled  by  the 
Theban  kings,  and  driven  back  into  Asia.  This  occurred  about 
1650  B.C.  The  episode  of  the  Shepherd  Kings  in  Egypt  derives 
great  importance  from  the  fact  that  these  Asiatic  conquerors  were 
one  of  the  mediums  through  which  Egyptian  civilization  was  trans- 
mitted to  the  Phoenicians,  who,  through  their  wide  commercial 
relations,  spread  the  same  among  all  the  early  nations  of  the 
Mediterranean  area.  Thus  Egypt  became  indirectly  the  instructor 
of  Greece  and  Rome. 

And  further,  the  Hyksos'  conquest  was  an  advantage  to  Egypt 
itself.  The  conquerors  possessed  poUtical  capacity,  and  they  did 
for  Egypt  just  what  the  Norman  conquerors  did  for  England  — 
gave  it  a  strong,  centralized  government.  They  made  Egypt  a 
great  monarchy,  and  laid  the  basis  of  the  power  and  glory  of  the 
,  .mighty  Pharaohs  of  the  Eighteenth  and  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty. 

Amosis,  Founder  of  the  New  Empire  (about  1650  b.c).  —  The 
revolt  which  drove  the  Hyksos  from  the  country  was  led  by  Amo- 
sis, or  Ahmes,  a  descendant  of  the  Theban  kings.  He  delivered 
the  entire  valley  between  the  cataracts  and  the  sea  from  the  in- 
vaders, and  restored  the  temples  and  monuments  that  had  suffered 
from  the  rudeness  of  the  conquerors.  He  was  the  first  king  of 
what  is  known  as  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty,  probably  the  greatest 
race  of  kings,  it  has  been  said,  that  ever  reigned  upon  the  earth. 

The  most  eventful  period  of  Egyptian  history,  covered  by  what 
is  called  the  New  Empire,  now  opens.  Architecture  and  learning 
seem  to  have  recovered  at  a  bound  from  their  long  depression 
under  the  domination  of  the  Shepherd  Kings.  To  free  his  empire 
from  the  danger  of  another  invasion  from  Asia,  Amosis  determined 
to  subdue  the  Syrian  and  Mesopotamian  tribes.  This  foreign 
policy,  followed  out  by  his  successors,  shaped  many  of  the  events 
of  their  reigns. 

Thothmes  III  (about  1600  e.g.).  — Thothmes  has  been  called 


24  POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 

"  the  Alexander  of  Egyptian  history."  He  was  at  least  a  great 
warrior,  and  during  his  reign  the  frontiers  of  the  empire  reached 
their  greatest  expansion.  His  authority  extended  from  the  oases 
of  the  Libyan  desert  to  the  sources  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 
He  built  a  strong  fortress  upon  the  latter  river  at  Carchemish, 
added  both  Nineveh  and  Babylon  to  his  kingdom,  and  exacted 
tribute  and  hostages  from  the  various  Mesopotamian  princes. 
Tablets  cut  in  the  rocks,  and  various  monuments  commemorative 
of  his  conquests,  are  scattered  from  Algeria,  in  Northern  Africa, 
to  the  Armenian  Mountains,  in  Asia,  and  are  found  far  up  the 
Nile,  in  Abyssinia. 

Thothmes  was  also  a  magnificent  builder.  His  architectural 
works  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  were  almost  numberless.  There 
was  scarcely  a  city  in  Egypt  that  he  did  not  decorate  with  temple 
or  palace  or  obelisk.  He  built  also  a  great  part  of  the  Temple  of 
Kamak,  at  Thebes,  the  remains  of  which  form  the  most  majestic 
ruin  in  the  world.  All  his  monuments  are  literally  covered  with 
sculptures  and  inscriptions  —  records  of  his  numerous  expeditions 
and  great  works.  His  obelisks  stand  to-day  in  Constantinople 
and  Rome  and  London  and  New  York. 

Amunoph  (Amenophis)  III.  —  This  name  stands  next  after 
that  of  Thothmes  IH.  as  oae  of  the  great  sovereigns  of  the  Eight- 
eenth Dynasty.  .  Although,  like  his  rival,  a  famous  warrior,  still  it 
is  the  remains  of  his  splendid  buildings,  scattered  over  the  sites  of 
the  ancient  capitals  of  Egypt,  that  have  given  him  so  prominent  a 
place  in  Egyptian  history.  He  added  to  the  Temple  of  Karnak, 
and  erected  portions  of  the  superb  Palace  of  Luxor,  joining  it  to 
the  former  edifice  by  a  grand  avenue  lined  with  a  thousand  colos- 
sal sphinxes.  To  him,  too,  is  ascribed  the  erection  at  Thebes  of 
the  celebrated  colossus  known  as  the  Vocal  Memnon. 

The  Nineteenth  Dynasty  (about  1400-1280  b.c).  —  The  Pha- 
raohs of  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty  rivalled  those  of  the  Eighteenth 
in  their  fame  as  conquerors  and  builders.  It  is  their  deeds  and 
works,  in  connection  with  those  of  the  preceding  dynasty,  that 
have  given  Egypt  such  a  name  and  place  in  history. 


SETT  L  25 

The  dynasty  was  founded  by  Rameses  I.,  whose  fame,  as 
Brugsch  says,  "  consists  chiefly  in  the  place  he  holds  in  the  histor- 
ical series,  as  the  father  of  a  very  celebrated  son,  and  the  grand- 
father of  one  who  was  covered  with  glory  and  sung  of  as  a  hero  to 
the  latest  ages."  The  son  and  grandson  here  referred  to  were 
Seti  I.  and  Rameses  11.  To  each  of  these  great  names  a  separate 
paragraph  must  be  given. 

Seti  I.  (about  1398  e.g.).  —  One  of  the  most  important  of 
Seti's  wars  was  that  against  the  Hittites  {Khita,  in  the  inscriptions) 
and  their  allies.  The  Hittites  were  a  powerful,  non-Semitic  peo- 
ple, whose  capital  was  Carchemish  on  the  Euphrates,  and  whose 
strength  and  influence  were  now  so  great  as  to  be  a  threat  to 
Egypt.  Marching  against  these  formidable  enemies,  Seti  over- 
came their  army  with  great  slaughter,  and  returned  to  Egypt  with 
his  chariot  garnished  with  the  heads  of  several  of  their  chiefs.  In 
other  campaigns  he  carried  terror  to  new  foes  on  the  west  and  the 
south  of  Egypt. 

But  Seti's  deeds  as  a  warrior  are  eclipsed  by  his  achievements 
as  a  builder.  He  constructed  the  main  part  of  what  is  perhaps 
the  most  impressive  edifice  ever  raised  by  man  —  the  world- 
renowned  "  Hall  of  Columns  "  in  the  Temple  of  Karnak,  at  Thebes. 
He  also  cut  for  himself  in  the  Valley  of  the  Tombs  of  the  Kings, 
at  the  same  place,  the  most  beautiful  and  elaborate  of  all  the 
rock-sepulchres  of  the  Pharaohs.  In  addition  to  these  works  and 
numerous  other  architectural  constructions,  he  began  a  canal  to 
unite  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Nile  —  an  undertaking  which  was 
completed  by  his  son,  who,  while  yet  a  mere  child,  was,  according 
to  a  custom  of  the  Pharaohs  already  mentioned  (see  p.  18),  asso- 
ciated with  his  father  in  the  government. 

Rameses  II,  (about  1370  e.g.).  —  Rameses  II.,  surnamed  the 
Great,  was  the  Sesostris  of  the  Greeks.  His  is  the  most  promi- 
nent name  of  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty.  Ancient  writers,  in  fact, 
accorded  him  the  first  place  among  all  the  Egyptian  sovereigns, 
and  told  mythical  and  most  exaggerated  stories  of  his  conquests 
and  achievements.     His  long  reign,  embracing  sixty-seven  years, 


26 


POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


PORTRAIT-STATUE   OF   RAMESES   II. 


RAMESES  11. 


27 


was,   indeed,   well    occupied   with    military   expeditions    and    the 
superintendence  of  great  architectural  works. 

The  chief  of  his  wars  were  those  against  the  Hittites,  of  whom 
we  have  just  spoken  in  connection  with  Seti  I.  In  his  second 
campaign  against  this  foe  was  fought  the  great  battle  of  Kadesh, 
on  the  Orontes,  in  Northern  Syria.  In  this  fight,  Rameses,  sepa- 
rated from  his  army  and  surrounded,  as  declares  the  Egyptian 
Iliad  which  celebrates  the  exploit,  by  twenty-five  hundred  chariots 
of  the  enemy,  performed  superhuman  deeds,  and  through  his 
own  personal  prowess  achieved  a  great  victory. 


RAMESES    II.    RETURNING    IN    TRIUMPH    FROM    SYRIA,  with  his  chariot  garnished 
with  the  heads  of  his  enemies.      (From  the  monuments  of  Karnak.) 

Time  and  again  is  Rameses  found  with  his  host  of  war-chariots 
in  the  country  of  the  Hittites,  but  he  evidently  fails  to  break  their 
power ;  for  we  find  him  at  last  concluding  with  them  a  celebrated 
treaty,  in  which  the  chief  of  the  Hittites  is  called  "The  Great 
King  of  the  Khita,"  and  is  formally  recognized  as  in  every  respect 
the  equal  of  the  king  of  Egypt.  Later,  Rameses  marries  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  Hittite  king.  All  this  means  that  the  Pharaohs  had  met 
their  peers  in  the  princes  of  the  Hittites,  and  that  they  could  no 
longer  hope  to  become  masters  of  Western  Asia.  Indeed,  the 
empire  of  the  Pharaohs  had  already  passed  its  culmination,  and 
all  Rameses'  efforts  were  directed  to  upholding  the  fortunes  of  a 
declining  state. 


28  POLITICAL   HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 

It  was  probably  the  fear  of  an  invasion  by  the  tribes  of  Syria 
that  led  him  to  reduce  to  a  position  of  grinding  servitude  the 
Semitic  peoples  that  under  former  dynasties  had  been  permitted 
to  settle  in  Lower  Egypt ;  for  this  Nineteenth  Dynasty,  to  which 
Rameses  II.  belongs,  was  the  new  king  (dynasty)  that  arose 
"which  knew  not  Joseph  "  (Ex.  i.  8),  and  oppressed  the  children 
of  Israel.  Especially  was  it  under  this  monarch  that  their  "  lives 
were  made  bitter  with  hard  bondage,  in  mortar  and  in  brick,  and 
in  all  manner  of  service  in  the  field."  Papyri  recently  interpreted 
tell  us  that  the  Hebrews  were  the  builders  of  the  treasure-cities 
of  "  Pi  thorn  and  Raamses,"  as  recorded  in  Exodus. 

Besides  enslaving  these  Semitic  tribes  that  migratory  movements 
had  brought  into  the  Delta  region,  Rameses  pressed  to  the  work 
on  his  various  edifices  great  multitudes  of  captives  taken  in  his 
numerous  wars,  as  well  as  negroes  obtained  by  "  man-hunting  ex- 
peditions "  into  Central  Africa.  The  native  Egyptian  peasants"  were 
also  vexed  by  heartless  taskmasters,  taxes,  extortions,  and  cruel 
punishments.  As  Dr.  Smith  observes,  "  The  epithet  '  Great '  is,  as 
usual  in  history,  but  the  tribute  rendered  by  the  weak  judgment  of 
men  to  arrogant  despotism  and  barbaric  pomp.  .  .  .  We  may  ven- 
ture to  call  him  the  Louis  XIV.  of  the  Egyptian  monarchy  ;  and 
^ after  him  came  the  deluge.'"  It  was  during  the  reign  of  his  son 
Menephtha  that  the  Exodus  took  place  (about  1300  B.C.). 

Fsammetichus  I.  (666-612). — We  pass  without  comment  a  long 
period  of  several  centuries,  marked,  indeed,  by  great  vicissitudes 
in  the  fortunes  of  the  Egyptian  monarchs,  yet  characterized 
throughout  by  a  sure  and  rapid  decline  in  the  power  and  splen- 
dor of  their  empire. 

During  the  latter  part  of  this  period  Egypt  was  tributary  to 
Assyria  or  Ethiopia.  But  the  Ethiopian  authority  was  thrown  off, 
and  soon  after,  about  666  b.c,  when  the  Babylonians  in  concert 
with  other  peoples  arose  in  revolt  against  the  Assyrian  king, 
Egypt,  taking  advantage  of  the  opportunity,  detached  herself 
from  the  empire,  and  a  native  prince,  Psammetichus  (Psam- 
metik)  by  name,  with  the  aid  of  Ionian  and  Carian  mercenaries 


PSAMMETICHUS  I.  29 

from  Asia  Minor,  expelled  the  Assyrian  garrisons,  and  succeeded 
in  consolidating  the  twenty  satrapies,  or  provinces,  into  which  the 
Assyrian  conquerors  had  divided  the  country,  into  a  single  well- 
ordered  and  powerful  kingdom.  Psammetichus  thus  became  the 
founder  of  the  Twenty-sixth  Dynasty. 

The  reign  of  this  monarch  marks  a  new  era  in  Egyptian  history. 
He  effected  an  entire  and  radical  change  in  the  policy  of  the  gov- 
ernment. Hitherto  Egypt  had  secluded  herself  from  the  world 
behind  barriers  of  jealousy,  race,  and  pride.  But  Psammetichus 
being  himself,  it  seems,  of  non-Egyptian  origin,  and  owing  his 
throne  chiefly  to  the  swords  of  Greek  soldiers,  was  led  to  reverse 
the  policy  of  the  past,  and  to  throw  the  valley  open  to  the  com- 
merce and  influences  of  the  world.  His  capital,  Sais,  on  the  Ca- 
nopic  branch  of  the  Nile,  forty  miles  from  the  Mediterranean,  was 
filled  with  Greek  citizens  ;  and  Greek  mercenaries  were  employed 
in  his  armies.  Diodorus  says  :  "  He  loved  Greece  so  much  that 
he  caused  his  children  to  be  taught  its  language.  He  was  the  first 
of  the  Eg)'ptian  kings  who  opened  to  other  nations  emporia  for 
their  merchandise,  and  gave  security  to  voyagers ;  for  his  prede- 
cessors had  rendered  Egypt  inaccessible  to  foreigners  by  putting 
some  to  death,  and  condemning  others  to  slavery." 

This  change  of  policy,  occurring  at  just  the  period  when  the 
rising  states  of  Greece  and  Rome  were  shaping  their  institutions, 
was  a  most  significant  event.  Egypt  became  the  University  of  the 
Mediterranean  nations.  From  this  time  forward  Greek  philoso- 
phers, as  Pythagoras  and  Plato,  are  represented  as  becoming  pupils 
of  the  Egyptian  priests ;  and  without  question  the  learning  and 
philosophy  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  exerted  a  profound  influence 
upon  the  quick,  susceptible  mind  of  the  Hellenic  race,  that  was, 
in  its  turn,  to  become  the  teacher  of  the  world.^ 

i  Quite  recently  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Greek  city  of  Naucratis,  which  was 
the  centre  of  the  Greek  population  in  the  Delta,  have  been  discovered,  and 
quite  thoroughly  excavated.  The  importance  of  the  discovery,  in  the  evidence 
it  affords  of  the  influence  of  Egyptian  upon  Greek  art  and  culture,  can  hardly 
be  overrated.     It  supplies  another  connecting  link  between  the  history  of  the 


30  POLITICAL   HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 

The  liberal  policy  of  Psammetichus,  while  resulting  in  great 
advantage  to  foreign  nations,  brought  a  heavy  misfortune  upon  hi?; 
own.  Displeased  with  the  position  assigned  Greek  mercenaries 
in  the  army,  the  native  Egyptian  soldiers  revolted,  and  two 
hundred  thousand  of  the  troops,  embracing  the  larger  part  of 
the  warrior  class  of  society,  which  ranked  next  in  importance  to 
the  sacerdotal  order,  seceded  in  a  body,  and  emigrated  to  Ethi- 
opia, whence  no  inducement  that  Psammetichus  offered  could 
persuade  them  to  return. 

Necho  II.  (612-596  B.C.). — The  son  of  Psammetichus,  Necho 
II.,  the  Pharaoh-Necho  of  the  Bible,  followed  the  liberal  policy 
marked  out  by  his  father.  To  facilitate  commerce,  and  to  unite 
his  great  war-fleets  on  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea,  he  attempted 
to  re-open  the  old  canal  dug  by  Seti  I.  and  his  son,  which  had 
become  unnavigable.  Necho  proposed  to  make  it  wide  and  deep 
enough  to  float  his  great  triremes.  After  the  loss  of  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  thousand  workmen  in  the  prosecution  of  the 
undertaking,  Necho  was  constrained  to  abandon  it;  Herodotus 
says,  on  account  of  an  unfavorable  oracle. 

Necho  then  fitted  out  an  exploring  expedition  for  the  circum- 
navigation of  Africa,  in  hopes  of  finding  a  possible  passage  for  his 
fleets  from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Nile  by  a  water  channel  already 
opened  by  nature,  and  to  which  the  priests  and  oracles  could 
interpose  no  objections.  The  expedition,  we  have  reason  to 
believe,  actually  accomplished  the  feat  of  sailing  around  the  con- 
tinent ;  for  Herodotus,  in  his  account  of  the  enterprise,  says  that 
the  voyagers  upon  their  return  reported  that,  when  they  were 
rounding  the  cape,  the  sun  was  on  their  right  hand  (to  the  north). 

East  and  that  of  the  West.  Ernest  Gardner,  in  his  report  of  his  work,  says : 
"  The  influence  of  Egypt  flowed  through  Naucratis  to  Greece,  and  the  long- 
perfected  nriodels  of  Egyptian  skill  roused  the  emulation,  if  not  always  the 
imitation,  of  the  young  and  quickly  rising  art  of  Greece."  Naucratis  was  at 
its  height  of  prosperity  in  the  6th  century  B.C.,  although  it  certainly  existed  as 
early  as  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century.  King  Amasis  (see  p.  31)  broke  up 
all  the  other  Greek  settlements  in  the  Delta,  and  confined  the  Greek  traders  to 
Naucratis. 


THE   LAST    OF   THE   PHARAOHS.  31 

This  feature  of  the  report,  which  led  Herodotus  to  disbeUeve  it, 
is  to  us  the  very  strongest  evidence  possible  that  the  voyage  was 
really  performed.  It  is  said,  that  the  expedition  was  absent  three 
years ;  and  that,  their  provisions  failing,  the  sailors  landed  each 
summer,  sowed  fields  of  grain,  and,  after  waiting  for  the  same  to 
ripen,  harvested  the  crop,  and  then  resumed  their  voyage. 

The  Last  of  the  Pharaohs.  —  Before  the  close  of  his  reign, 
Necho  had  come  into  collision  with  Nabopolassar,  king  of  Babylon. 
The  armies  of  that  monarch,  led  by  his  son  Nebuchadnezzar, 
wrested  from  the  Egyptian  king  the  strong  fortress  of  Carchemish, 
that  watched  the  Euphrates.^  In  this  event  was  written  the  fate 
of  the  empire  of  the  Nile.  The  Pharaohs  were  forced  to  acknowl- 
edge the  suzerainty  of  the  Babylonian  kings. 

Under  Amasis  (571-527  B.C.),  however,  Egypt,  although  part 
of  the  time  a  vassal  state  to  Babylon,  enjoyed  a  period  of  unusual 
prosperity.  Diodorus  says  that  at  this  time  Egypt  held  eighteen 
thousand  cities ;  Herodotus  makes  the  number  twenty  thousand. 
Villages  and  mere  clusters  of  buildings  were  doubtless  included  in 
this  enumeration.  Yet,  although  the  country  had  a  large  popu- 
lation, we  must  bear  in  mind  that  her  military  strength  had  been 
seriously  weakened  by  the  secession  of  the  warrior  class  in  the 
reign  of  Psammetichus.  She  could  no  longer  offer  formidable 
resistance  to  Asiatic  conquerors. 

In  527  B.C.,  the  Persian  king  Cambyses  invaded  the  valley, 
defeated  and  put  to  death  the  successor  of  Amasis  —  his  son, 
Psammetichus  HI.  —  and  established  the  Persian  authority 
throughout  the  country.  The  Egyptians,  however,  were  restive 
under  this  foreign  yoke,  and,  after  a  little  more  than  a  century, 
succeeded  in  throwing  it  off;  but  the  country  was  again  subju- 
gated by  the  Persian  king,  Artaxerxes  III.  (about  340  B.C.),  and 
from  that  time  on  to  our  own  day  no  native  prince  has  ever  sat 
upon  the  throne  of  the  Pharaohs.  Long  before  the  Persian  con- 
quest, the  Prophet  Ezekiel,  foretelling  the  destruction  of  Egypt, 

1  Necho  had  captured  Carchemish  only  a  few  years  before  this,  probably  in 
608  B.C. 


32  POLITICAL   HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 

had  declared,  "  There  shall  be  no  more  a  prince  of  the  land  of 
Egypt."  1 

Upon  the  extension  of  the  power  of  the  Macedonians  over  the 
East  (333  B.C.),  Egypt  willingly  exchanged  masters  ;  and  for  three 
centuries  the  valley  was  the  seat  of  the  renowned  Graeco- Egyptian 
Empire  of  the  Ptolemies,  which  lasted  until  the  Romans  annexed 
the  region  to  their  all-absorbing  empire  (30  B.C.). 

"  The  mission  of  Egypt  among  the  nations  was  fulfilled  ;  it  had 
lit  the  torch  of  civilization  in  ages  inconceivably  remote,  and  had 
passed  it  on  to  other  peoples  of  the  West." 

Reflecting  upon  the  causes  which  paved  the  way  for  Egypt's 
decline  and  fall,  the  Egyptologist  Brugsch  observes :  "  Strong  as 
is  the  impression  of  pity  made  by  the  sight  of  this  miserable  end 
to  the  mighty  empire  of  the  Pharaohs,  yet  the  temples  and  edifices 
built  to  last  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years  could  offer  no  resist- 
ance to  the  perishableness  of  all  things  earthly ;  for  it  was  not  in 
their  everlasting  stones  that  the  Pharaohs  should  have  established 
their  imperishable  monuments.  The  harassed  and  exhausted  peo- 
ple, persecuted  with  war  and  oppression,  a  plaything  for  the  caprice 
and  ambition  of  their  princes,  easily  broke  their  faith  when  they 
no  longer  received  their  reward  in  the  fidelity  and  affection  of 
their  rulers.  Degraded  into  the  mere  means  to  a  selfish  end,  it 
was  the  same  to  them  whom  they  served,  whether  Assyrian,  Per- 
sian, or  Greek.  No  foreign  prince  could  prove  worse  to  them 
than  Pharaoh  and  his  court." 

1  Ez.  XXX.  13. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 


33 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  AND   SUMMARY   OF   EGYPTIAN 


Old  Empire  (em- 
bracing first 
sixteen  dynas- 
ties). 

Middle  Empire : 
rule  of  the 
Shepherd 
Kings  (Seven- 
teenth Dynas- 

ty). 


New  Empire 
(embracing 
i8th-26th  dy- 
nasties). 


Later  History. 


HISTORY. 

Menes,  legendary  founder  of  the  empire  .     .     . 
Great  Pyramids  built  by  kings  of  Fourth  Dynasty, 

Twelfth  Dynasty 

Hyksos  (Asiatic  invaders)  overthrow  the  Old 
Empire 

Shepherd  Kings  become  masters  of  Egypt    .     . 

Monuments  of  early  kings  destroyed  or  mutilated. 
Dark  Ages  of  Egyptian  history.  During  the 
latter  part  of  this  period  the  Children  of  Israel 
settle  in  the  land.  Period  closes  with  expul- 
sion of  Hyksos  by  Amosis,  a  Theban  prince  . 

Amosis  establishes  New  Empire 

******* 

Thothmes  III.,  warrior  and  builder,  reigns    .     . 
******* 

Amunoph  III.,  great  builder 

******* 

Rameses  I.  establishes  Nineteenth  Dynasty  .     . 

Seti  I 

Rameses  II.  the  Great 

Menephthah  (son  of  Rameses  II.),  Pharaoh  of 

the  Exodus 

******* 

Sheshonk  (Shishak) 

Psammetichus  I.  (according  to  Brugsch)       .     . 

Necho  (Pharaoh-Necho) 

Psammetichus  II 

Apries  (Pharaoh-Hophra) 

Amasis 

Psammetichus  III.  (reigned  six  months)  .     .     . 

Egypt  a  dependency  of  Persian  Empire    .     .     . 
Under  native  princes  (28th-30th  dynasties) 
Persian  authority  restored  (31st  Dynasty)     .     . 

Alexander  conquers  Eg)'pt 

Ptolemies  rule  in  Egypt 

[^  Conquest  of  country  by  Romans 


about 


B.C. 

(?) 
2700 
2300 

2100 
2100 


"    1650 
"    1650 

"    1600 

"    1550 

"    1400 

"    1398 
"    1370 

'*    1320 

"  993-972 
666-612 
612-596 
596-590 
590-571 
571-527 
527 

527-404 
404-340? 

340?-332 

332 

323-30 

30 


34        RELIGION,   ETC.,    OF   THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


CHAPTER    II. 

RELIGION,  MONUMENTS,  ARTS,  AND   SCIENCES   OF  THE 
ANCIENT   EGYPTIANS. 

Classes  of  Society.  —  Egyptian  society  was  divided  into  three 
great  classes,  or  orders,  —  priests,  soldiers,  and  common  people  ; 
the  last  embracing  shepherds,  husbandmen,  and  artisans.  These 
divisions  are  more  properly  designated  as  classes  than  castes ;  for 
the  characteristic  features  of  the  latter,  as  existing  among  the 
Hindus,  are  that  the  members  "  must  abstain  from  certain  forbid- 
den occupations,  contract  no  alliance  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
caste,  and  must  continue  to  practise  the  profession  of  their 
fathers  "  ;  whereas  among  the  Egyptians  there  were  no  such  re- 
strictions laid  upon  the  two  principal  classes.  The  priest  might 
become  a  soldier,  and  the  soldier  a  priest,  or  the  same  person 
might  be  both  at  once. 

The  Priesthood.  —  The  sacerdotal  order  formed  a  perfect  hie- 
rarchy, consisting  of  a  high  priest,  of  prophets,  scribes,  keepers  of 
the  sacred  robes  and  animals,  sacred  sculptors,  masons  and  em- 
balmers,  and  a  host  of  attendants  and  functionaries  to  care  for  the 
temples,  and  perform  the  complicated  ceremonies  of  the  national 
worship.  They  enjoyed  freedom  from  taxation,  and  met  the 
expenses  of  the  temple  services  by  the  income  of  the  sacred 
lands,  which  embraced  one-third  of  the  soil  of  the  country. 

The  priests  were  extremely  scrupulous  in  the  care  of  their  per- 
sons. They  bathed  twice  by  day  and  as  often  by  night,  and 
shaved  the  entire  body  every  third  day.  Their  inner  clothing  was 
linen,  woollen  garments  being  thought  unclean ;  their  diet  was 
plain  and  even  abstemious,  in  order  that,  as  Plutarch  says,  "  their 
bodies  might  sit  light  as  possible  about  their  souls." 


THE    WARRIOR    CLASS.  -  35 

The  Warrior  Class.  —  Next  to  the  priesthood  in  rank  and  honor 
stood  the  mihtary  order.  Like  the  priests,  the  soldiers  formed 
a  landed  class.  They  held  one-third  of  the  soil  of  Egypt.  To 
each  soldier  was  given  a  tract  of  about  eight  acres,  exempt  from 
all  taxes.  They  were  carefully  trained  in  their  profession,  and 
there  was  no  more  effective  soldiery  in  ancient  times  than  that 
which  marched  beneath  the  standards  of  the  Pharaohs. 

The  military  force  of  the  nation  numbered,  in  the  best  days 
of  the  empire,  about  five  hundred  thousand  men,  increased  by  . 
allies  and  mercenaries,  in  case  of  special  urgency,  to  more  than 
one  million.  The  army  was  made  up  of  infantry,  cavalry,  and 
charioteers;  the  archers  of  the  first  being  the  most  effective 
branch  of  the  service.  The  regiments  are  sometimes  represented 
upon  the  monuments  as  moving  in  a  heavy  mass,  like  the  Mace- 
donian phalanx.  The  Egyptian  phalanx  consisted  of  ten  thou- 
sand men  drawn  up  in  a  sohd  square,  with  one  hundred  men  on 
each  face.  Protected  with  immense  shields,  this  body,  like  its 
Macedonian  successor,  was  practically  impenetrable,  and  when 
moving  over  level  ground  bore  down  everything  before  it. 

The  navy  of  the  Egyptians  was  composed  of  Phoenician  ships 
and  sailors;  the  Egyptians  themselves  hated  the  sea.  Records 
have  been  discovered  of  naval  engagements  between  the  Egyptian 
fleets  and  their  enemies  upon  the  Mediterranean  more  than  two 
thousand  years  before  our  era. 

Religious  Doctrines.  —  Attached  to  the  chief  temples  of  the 
Egyptians  were  colleges  for  the  training  of  the  sacerdotal  order. 
These  institutions  were  the  repositories  of  the  wisdom  of  the 
.  Eg)q:>tians.  This  learning  was  open  only  to  the  initiated  few. 
The  papyri  have  revealed  to  us  —  more  favored  than  the  unini- 
tiated of  those  times  —  the  jealously  guarded  mysteries  of  Isis. 

The  unity  of  God  was  the  central  doctrine  in  this  esoteric  sys- 
tem. They  gave  to  this  Supreme  Being  the  very  same  name  by 
which  he  was  known  to  the  Hebrews  —  Nuk  Pu  Nuk,  "  I  am  that 
I  am."  ^     The  sacred  manuscripts  say,  "  He  is  the  one  living  and 

1  "  It  is  evident  what  a  new  light  this  discovery  throws  on  the  sublime 


36       RELIGION,   ETC.,    OF   THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 

true  God,  who  was  begotten  by  himself.  .  .  .  He  who  has  existed 
from  the  beginning,  .  .  .  who  has  made  all  things,  and  was  not 
himself  made."  ^  To  this  Being  were  given  many  names,  to 
express  the  modes  of  his  manifestations ;  just  as  we  give  different 
names  to  the  Deity  —  as  Creator,  Eternal,  Father  —  to  indicate 
the  various  relations  he  sustains  to  the  universe  and  to  ourselves.- 

The  great  multitude,  of  course,  did  not  and  could  not  rise  to 
this  lofty  monotheism ;  to  them  the  different  parts  of  nature,  as 
the  sun  and  moon,  and  the  various  animals,  were  distinct  gods, 
instead  of  parts  of  a  great  whole  animated  by  a  universal  soul. 

Osiris,  Isis,  and  Horus.  —  The  Egyptian  divinities  of  the  popu- 
lar mythology  were  frequently  grouped  in  triads.  First  in  impor- 
tance among  these  groups  was  that  formed  by  Osiris,  Isis  (his  wife 
and  sister) ,  and  Horus,  their  son.  The  members  of  this  triad  were 
worshipped  throughout  Egypt.  The  Egyptians  had  whole  libraries 
of  myths  and  legends,  some  of  them  very  beautiful  and  signifi- 
cant, respecting  these  favorite  divinities."  Many  of  the  other 
triads  were  composed  of  local  deities. 

passage  in  Exodus  iii.  14;  where  Moses,  whom  we  may  suppose  to  have 
been  initiated  into  this  formula,  is  sent  both  to  his  people  and  to  Pharaoh  to 
proclaim  the  true  God  by  this  very  title,  and  to  declare  that  the  God  of  the 
highest  Egyptian  theology  was  also  the  God  of  Abraham,  of  Isaac,  and  of 
Jacob.  The  case  is  parallel  to  that  of  Paul  at  Athens."  — Smith,  Ancient 
History  of  the  East,  p.  196,  note. 

1  Lenormant,  Ancient  History  of  the  East,  Vol.  I.  p.  318. 

2  The  inferior  deities  were  likewise  given  many  designations.  Isis  was 
called  "  the  goddess  with  ten  thousand  names." 

3  "The  peculiar  character  of  Osiris,  his  coming  upon  earth  for  the  benefit 
of  mankind,  with  the  title  of  *  Manifestor  of  good  and  truth,''his  being  put 
to  death  by  the  malice  of  the  evil  one,  his  burial  and  resurrection,  and  his 
becoming  the  judge  of  the  dead,  are  the  most  interesting  features  of  the 
Egyptian  religion.  This  was  the  great  mystery;  and  this  myth  and  his 
worship  were  of  the  earliest  times,  and  universal  in  Egypt.  He  was  to  every 
Egyptian  the  great  Judge  of  the  dead;  and  it  is  evident  that  Moses  abstained 
from  making  any  very  pointed  allusion  to  the  future  state  of  man  because  it 
would  have  recalled  the  well-known  Judge  of  the  dead  and  all  the  funeral 
ceremonies  of  Egypt,  and  have  brought  back  the  thoughts  of  the  mixed  mul- 


ANIMAL-  WORSHIP.  37 

The  possible  origin  of  the  triad,  or  threefold  grouping  of  the 
gods,  which  is  a  feature  characterizing  many,  if  not  all,  polytheistic 
religions,  is  that  anthropomorphic  conception  of  the  divinities 
which  attributes  to  them  all  human  distinctions,  and  creates  a 
celestial  family,  composed,  like  the  human,  of  father,  mother,  and 

son. 

Set,  or  Typhon.  —  The  god  Set  (called  Typhon  by  the  Greek 
writers),  the  principle  of  evil,  was  the  Satan  of  Egyptian  mythol- 
ogy. While  the  good  and  beneficent  Osiris  was  symbolized  by 
the  Nile,  the  malignant  Typhon  was  emblemized  by  the  terrors 
and  barrenness  of  the  desert;  by  a  frightful  serpent,  slain  by 
Horus ;  and,  again,  by  the  hippopotamus  or  the  crocodile. 

Animal- Worship.  —  As  strange  to  us  as  to  the  Greeks  seems 
the  animal-worship  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Clemens,  after  de- 
scribing the  superb  temples  of  Egypt,  the  solemn  ceremonies,  and 
the  magnificent  processions  of  the  priests,  thus  contrasts  all  this 
with  the  deity  which  is  the  object  of  this  adoration :  "But  if  you 
enter  the  penetralia,  and  inquire  for  the  image  of  the  god,  one  of 
the  attendants  approaches  with  a  solemn  and  mysterious  aspect, 
and,  putting  aside  the  veil,  suffers  you  to  peep  in  and  obtain  a 
glimpse  of  the  divinity.  There  you  behold  a  snake,  a  crocodile,  or 
a  cat,  or  some  other  beast,  a  fitter  inhabitant  of  a  cavern  or  a  bog 
than  a  temple." 

To  kill  one  of  these  sacred  animals  was  adjudged  the  greatest 
impiety.  Persons  so  unfortunate  as  to  kill  one  through  accident 
were  sometimes  murdered  by  the  infuriated  people.  A  Roman 
soldier,  having  killed  a  sacred  cat,  was  set  upon  by  the  multitude 
and  killed,  in  spite  of  the  intercession  of  the  reigning  Ptolemy. 
The  destruction  of  a  cat  in  a  burning  building  was  lamented  more 
than  the  loss  of  the  property.  Upon  the  death  of  a  dog,  every 
member  of  the  family  shaved  his  head.  The  scarabseus,  or  beetle, 
was  especially  sacred,  being  considered  an  emblem  of  the  sun. 

titude,  and  of  all  whose  minds  were  not  entirely  uncontaminated  by  Egyptian 
habits,  to  the  crude  superstitions  from  which  it  was  his  object  to  free  them."  — 
Wilkinson,  Ancient  Egyptians,  Vol.  I.  p.  331. 


38       RELIGION,   ETC.,    OF   THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 

The  Sacred  Bull  Apis.  —  Not  only  were  various  animals  held 
sacred  as  being  the  emblems  of  certain  deities,  but  some  were 
thought  to  be  real  gods.  This  beUef  of  the  Egyptians  that  their 
gods  actually  incarnated  themselves  in  various  animals  is  best  illus- 
trated in  their  worship  of  the  bull  Apis.  The  soul  of  Osiris,  it  was 
imagined,  animated  the  body  of  some  bull,  which  might  be  known 
from  certain  spots  and  markings.  One  of  these  marks  was  a  vul- 
ture with  outspread  wings  upon  the  back  of  the  ox.  At  Memphis 
was  the  sacred  stable  in  which  was  kept  "  the  fair  and  beautiful 
image  of  the  soul  of  Osiris." 

Upon  the  death  of  the  Apis,  a  great  search,  accompanied  with 
loud  lamentation,  was  made  throughout  the  land  for  his  successor : 
for,  the  moment  the  soul  of  Osiris  departed  from  the  dying  bull,  it 
entered  a  calf  that  moment  born.  The  calf  was  always  found  with 
the  proper  markings ;  but,  as  Wilkinson  says,  the  young  animal 
had  probably  been  put  to  "  much  inconvenience  and  pain  to  make 
the  marks  and  hair  conform  to  his  description." 

The  body  of  the  deceased  Apis  —  if  he  lived  beyond  twenty- 
five  years  he  was  killed  and  cast  into  a  well,  without  ceremony  — 
was  carefully  embalmed,  and,  amid  funeral  ceremonies  of  great 
expense  and  magnificence,  deposited  in  the  tomb  of  his  prede- 
cessors. In  185 1,  Mariette  discovered  this  sepulchral  chamber 
of  the  sacred  bulls.  It  is  a  narrow  gallery,  two  thousand  feet  in 
length,  cut  in  the  limestone  chffs  just  opposite  the  site  of  ancient 
Memphis.  Thirty  of  the  immense  granite  sarcophagi,  fifteen  feet 
long  and  eight  wide  and  high,  have  been  brought  to  light. 

Explanation  of  Animal- Worship.  —  Many  explanations  have 
been  given  to  account  for  the  existence  of  so  low  and  debased  a 
form  of  worship  among  a  people  so  far  advanced  in  the  scale  of 
culture  as  were  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  who,  moreover,  enter- 
tained such  just  and  exalted  conceptions  of  Deity.  Plutarch 
believed  that  the  worship  arose  from  the  custom  of  using  for  mili- 
tary standards  the  figures  of  various  animals,  which  gradually  came 
to  be  regarded  as  sacred.  Diodorus  accounted  for  it  by  the  fable 
that  the  gods,  when  hard  pressed  in  their  batde  with  the  giants, 


EXPLANATION  OF  ANIMAL-WORSHIP.  39 

sought  safety  in   the   disguise   of  animals,  which   hence   became 
objects  of  adoration. 

Some  modern  scholars  propose  the  following  solution :  The 
ancient  religion  of  the  Egyptians  was  the  result  of  the  meeting 
and  partial  blending  and  accommodation  to  each  other  of  two 
very  different  systems  of  belief.  Hence  its  dualistic  character. 
The  element  which  manifested  itself  in  animal-worship  had  its 
origin  and  basis  in  that  low  form  of  religion  existing  at  the  present 
day  among  many  African  tribes,  and  known  as  fetichism,  or  the 
adoration  of  material  objects,  animate  or  inanimate.  The  purer 
monotheistic  element,  represented  by  the  sacerdotal  order,  was 
introduced  by  the  Hamites,  or  perhaps  Semites,  who  mingled  with 
the  original  dwellers  in  the  Nile  valley.  We  know  that  the  doc- 
trines taught  the  initiated  in  the  priestly  colleges  prevailed  from 
the  very  remotest  times  among  the  ancestors  of  at  least  the  latter 
of  these  Asiatic  intruders.  This  sacerdotal  class,  finding  their 
doctrines  too  refined  and  spiritual  for  the  masses,  allowed  them 
to  retain  their  own  sensuous  worship,  but  dignified  it  with  temples 
and  magnificent  ceremonies.  In  course  of  time  attempts  to  har- 
monize the  two  forms  of  belief  led  to  a  complicated  and  ingenious 
system  of  symbolism,  till  every  sacred  animal  and  object  in  the 
lower  mode  of  worship  became  an  emblem  of  some  attribute  of 
the  Deity.  As  all  nature  is  a  parable,  an  emblem,  —  the  things 
which  are  seen  being  a  figure  of  those  things  which  are  not  seen, 
—  it  was  not  an  entirely  fanciful  system  that  was  evolved  by  this 
endeavor. 

Probably  the  only  modification  we  need  make  in  this  theory  to 
bring  it  into  accordance  with  the  actual  facts,  is  to  suppose  the 
more  spiritual  truths,  instead  of  being  brought  into  Egypt  from 
without,  to  have  been  the  natural  outgrowth  of  Egyptian  thought 
and  experience.  Then  the  sacred  animals  in  the  later  worship 
would  represent  an  earher  stage  of  the  Egyptian  religion,  just  as 
many  superstitious  beliefs  and  observances  in  modern  religions 
are  simply  survivals  from  the  prehistoric  ages  of  these  faiths  and 
creeds. 


40       RELIGION,   ETC.,    OF   THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 

Judgment  of  the  Dead.  —  Death  was  a  great  equaUzer  among 
the  Egyptians.  King  and  peasant  aUke  must  stand  before  the 
judgment-seat  of  Osiris  and  his  forty-two  assessors. 

This  judgment  of  the  soul  in  the  other  world  was  prefigured  by 
a  peculiar  ordeal  to  which  the  body  was  subjected  here.  Between 
each  chief  city  and  the  burial-place  on  the  western  edge  of  the 
valley  was  a  sacred  lake,  across  which  the  body  was  borne  in  a 
barge.  But,  before  admittance  to  the  boat,  it  must  pass  the 
ordeal  called  "  the  judgment  of  the  dead."  This  was  a  trial  before 
a  tribunal  of  forty- two  judges,  assembled  upon  the  shore  of  the 
lake.  Any  person  could  bring  accusations  against  the  deceased, 
false  charges  being  guarded  against  by  the  most  dreadful  penalties. 
If  no  proofs  of  impiety  were  established,  the  body  was  allowed  to 
be  borne  across  the  sacred  waters  to  the  place  of  sepulture.  But 
if  it  appeared  that  the  life  of  the  deceased  had  been  evil,  passage 
to  the  boat  of  Charon,  as  the  master  of  the  barge  was  called,  was 
denied ;  and  the  body  was  either  carried  home  in  dishonor,  or,  in 
case  of  the  poor  who  could  not  afford  to  care  for  the  mummy,  was 
interred  on  the  shores  of  the  lake.  Many  mummies  of  those 
refused  admission  to  the  tombs  of  their  fathers  have  been  dug 
up  along  these  "Stygian  banks."  Diodorus  affirms  that  several 
Pharaohs  were  denied  the  usual  funeral  honors.  The  soul  of  the 
body  thus  adjudged  unworthy  of  sepulture  was  condemned  to 
wander  for  a  hundred  years  in  the  realms  of  the  dead. 

But  this  ordeal  of  the  body  was  only  a  faint  symbol  of  the 
dread  tribunal  of  Osiris  before  which  the  soul  must  appear  in  the 
lower  world.  In  one  scale  of  a  balance,  held  by  Horus  and  Anu- 
bis,  was  placed  the  heart  of  the  deceased ;  in  the  other  scale,  an 
image  of  Justice,  or  Truth.  The  soul  stands  by  watching  the  re- 
sult, and,  as  the  beam  inclines,  is  either  welcomed  to  the  compan- 
ionship of  the  good  Osiris,  or  consigned  to  oblivion  in  the  jaws  of 
a  frightful  hippopotamus-headed  monster,  "  the  devourer  of  evil 
souls."  This  annihilation,  however,  is  only  the  fate  of  those  invet- 
erately  wicked.  Those  respecting  whom  hopes  of  reformation 
may  be  entertained  are  condemned  to  return  to  earth  and  do  pen- 


TOMBS. 


41 


ance  in  long  cycles  of  lives  in  the  bodies  of  various  animals.  This 
is  what  is  known  as  the  transmigration  of  souls.  The  kind  of  ani- 
mals the  soul  should  animate,  and  the  length  of  its  transmigra- 
tions, were  determined  by  the  nature  of  its  sins. 


JUDGMENT   OF   THE    DEAD. 


These  ceremonies  at  the  sacred  lake,  and  before  the  tribunal  of 
Osiris  and  his  assessors,  are  of  great  interest  as  showing  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Egyptian  rehgion  upon  the  nations  of  Southern  Eu- 
rope ;  for  they  are  doubtless  the  original  of  the  Acherusian  lake, 
Charon  and  the  Styx,  and  a  whole  series  of  Grecian  and  Roman 
fables  and  beliefs  respecting  the  other  world,  and  the  fortunes  of 
the  soul  after  death. 

Tombs.  — "  All  Egypt  bore  the  impress  of  religion."  Before 
all  things  else,  the  tombs  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  tell  us  of  their 
faith  and  worship.  They  believed  that,  after  having  spent  three 
thousand  years  with  Osiris,  the  good  soul  would  return  to  earth, 
and  reanimate  its  former  body.  Hence  little  care  was  bestowed 
upon  the  temporary  residences  of  the  living,  but  the  "  eternal 
homes  "  of  the  dead  were  fitted  up  with  the  most  lavish  expendi- 
ture of  labor.  These  were  chambers,  sometimes  built  of  brick  or 
stone,  but  more  usually  cut  in  the  limestone  cliffs  that  form  the 
western  rim  of  the  Nile  valley ;  for  that,  as  the  land  of  the  sunset, 
was  conceived  to  be  the  realm  of  darkness  and  of  death.     The 


42        RELIGION,    ETC.,    OF   THE   ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 

cliffs  opposite  the  ancient  Egyptian  capitals  are  honeycombed  with 
sepulchral  cells. 

In  the  hills  back  of  Thebes  is  the  so-called  Valley  of  the  Tombs 
of  the  Kings,  the  "Westminster  Abbey  of  Egypt."  Here  are 
twenty-five  magnificent  sepulchres.  These  consist  of  extensive 
rock-cut  passages  and  chambers,  whose  walls  are  covered  with 
sculptures  and  paintings  depicting  the  rewards  and  punishments 
awaiting  men  in  the  after-life,  according  to  their  deserts. 

The  ordinary  tombs  were  owned  by  the  priests,  and  were  bought 
and  sold  like  any  other  form  of  property.  They  were  fitted  up  in 
various  styles  to  suit  different  purchasers ;  even  the  paintings  and 
legends  were  all  finished,  leaving  nothing  to  be  done  save  the  in- 
sertion of  the  name  of  the  deceased.  Many  of  the  wealthy  class 
purchased  sites  from  the  priests,  and  then  spent  immense  sums  in 
embellishing  family  tombs,  some  of  which  are  said  to  have  rivalled 
those  of  the  kings  themselves. 

The  poorer  classes,  who  were  unable  to  defray  the  expense  of  a 
separate  tomb,  were,  after  the  embalming  of  the  body  in  the  rud- 
est and  most  inexpensive  manner,  laid  in  tiers  in  great  trenches 
dug  in  the  desert  sands. 

The  sculptures  and  paintings  of  the  tombs  usually  portray  the 
occupation  of  the  deceased,  being  representations  of  the  various 
processes  in  different  manufactures,  scenes  of  social  festivities,  and 
domestic  employments.  Thus  the  artist  has  converted  for  us  the 
Egyptian  necropolis  into  a  city  of  the  living,  where  the  Egypt  of 
four  thousand  years  ago  seems  to  pass  before  our  eyes. 

The  Pyramids.  —  Remains  of  ancient  pyramidal  structures,  the 
simple  and  durable  character  of  which  form  of  edifice  led  to  its 
adoption  by  primitive  builders,  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
—  in  Mexico,  China,  India,  Chaktea,  and  Egypt.  But  the  enor- 
mous structures  of  this  nature  raised  by  the  dwellers  of  the  Nile 
valley  far  surpass  all  other  edifices  of  the  same  kind,  and  are  the 
most  wonderful  and  venerable  monuments  that  have  been  pre- 
served to  us  from  the  early  world. 

The    Egyptian   pyramids    were    almost  all   erected  before   the 


THE  PYRAMIDS.  43 

Twelfth  Dynasty  j  and  the  largest  and  most  perfect,  as  we  have 
already  learned,  were  raised  by  the  monarchs  of  the  Fourth 
Dynasty.  This  fact  lends  to  them  the  greatest  interest ;  for  al- 
though thus  standing  away  back  in  the  earliest  twilight  of  the  his- 
toric morning,  they  mark,  not  the  beginning,  but  the  perfection, 
of  Egyptian  art.  They  speak  of  long  periods  of  growth  in  art  and 
science  lying  beyond  the  era  they  represent.  It  is  this  vast  and 
mysterious  background  that  astonishes  us  even  more  than  these 
giant  forms  cast  up  against  it. 

The  principal  Egyptian  pyramids,  sixty-seven  in  number,  are 
found  in  groups  along  the  edge  of  the  Libyan  desert,  for  a  dis- 
tance of  about  sixty  miles  above  the  present  city  of  Cairo.  Being 
sepulchral  monuments,  they  are  confined  to  the  western  side  of 
the  Nile  valley ;  for  that,  as  we  have  already  seen,  was  considered 
the  region  of  darkness  and  death. 

The  largest  of  the  Gizeh  group,  the  Pyramid  of  Cheops,  rises 
from  a  base  covering  thirteen  acres,  to  a  height  of  four  hundred 
and  eighty  feet.  According  to  Herodotus,  Cheops  employed  one 
hundred  thousand  men  for  twenty  years  in  its  erection,  ten  years' 
preparatory  work  having  been  expended  upon  the  great  causeway 
over  which  the  stones  were  dragged  from  the  Nile. 

All  the  pyramids  were  constructed  of  stone,  save  three  or  four, 
which  were  built  of  sun-dried  brick.  These  latter  have  crumbled 
into  vast  conical  heaps,  like  the  mounds  left  by  the  pyramid-tem- 
ples of  the  Babylonians. 

Several  of  the  pyramids  have  been  opened,  and  sarcophagi  dis- 
covered in  their  inner  chambers,  thus  proving  their  sepulchral  char- 
acter. Ambition,  doubtless,  as  well  as  a  desire  to  secure  the  royal 
body  against  any  possible  accident  or  violence,  determined  their 
enormous  size.  After  the  body  had  been  placed  within,  the  pas- 
sage-way was  closed  by  letting  fall  a  portcullis  of  hard  granite  ;^  and 
all  traces  of  the  entrance  were  then  obliterated  by  masonry. 

1  This  so  effectually  blocks  the  way  that  modern  explorers  of  the  pyramids, 
in  seeking  an  entrance,  are  often  forced  to  cut  a  tunnel  around  the  obstruc- 
tion, through  the  softer  limestone. 


44        RELIGION,   ETC.,    OF   THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 

Palaces  and  Temples.  — The  early  Memphian  kings  built  great 
unadorned  pyramids,  but  the  later  Theban  monarchs  constructed 
splendid  palaces  and  temples.  "Thebes,"  says  Lenormant,  "in 
spite  of  all  the  ravages  of  time  and  of  the  barbarian,  still  presents 
the  grandest,  the  most  prodigious  assemblage  of  buildings  ever 
erected  by  the  hand  of  man." 

The  ruins  that  cover  the  site  of  this  ancient  capital  are  the 
remains  of  palaces  and  temples  erected  by  the  combined  labors  of 
many  of  the  Pharaohs  and  Ptolemies  from  as  early  as  the  Twelfth 
Dynasty  to  the  Roman  conquest.  "  Most  of  the  great  temples, 
like  our  cathedrals,  were  the  work  of  age  after  age."  Two  of  the 
most  prominent  masses  of  buildings  are  called,  the  one  the  Temple 
of  Karnak,  and  the  other  the  Temple  of  Luxor,  from  the  names  of 
two  native  villages  built  near  or  within  the  ruined  enclosures.  The 
former  was  the  work  of  seven  kings,  and  was  more  than  five  hun- 
dred years  in  process  of  building. 

Any  detailed  description  of  these  ruins  is  here  impossible.  We 
can  only  notice  that  the  walls  of  both  palace  and  temple,  as  well 
as  the  faces  of  the  forest  of  columns  and  obelisks  that  adorned  the 
numerous  courts  and  corridors,  are  covered  with  sculptures  and 
paintings,  portraying  the  processions  of  the  priests  or  the  exploits 
of  the  kings. 

In  connection  with  the  temple  proper  were  various  buildings  for 
the  use  of  the  priests  of  the  sacred  college,  which  corresponded  to 
the  chapter  of  the  modern  cathedral.  As  an  adjunct  of  the  temple 
at  Karnak  was  a  Hall  of  Columns,  which  consisted  of  a  phalanx  of 
one  hundred  and  sixty-four  gigantic  pillars.  Some  of  these  col- 
umns measure  seventy  feet  in  height,  with  capitals  sixty-five  feet 
in  circumference. 

Although  the  ruins  of  the  royal  and  sacred  edifices  at  Thebes 
surpass  all  others  in  the  Nile  valley,  still  there  are  many  remains 
of  a  similar  nature,  though  less  remarkable  in  extent,  found  upon 
the  different  sites  occupied  by  the  other  capitals  and  chief  cities 
of  Egypt.  Most  of  these,  however,  are  of  a  later  date  than  those 
of  Karnak  and  Luxor.     In  Nubia,  beyond  the  First  Cataract,  is  the 


PALACES  AND    TEMPLES. 


45 


THE   GREAT    HALL  OF   COLUMNS   AT    KARNAK. 


46       RELIGION,   ETC.,    OF   THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


renowned  rock-hewn  temple  of  Ipsambul,  the  fagade  of  which  is 
adorned  with  four  gigantic  portrait-statues  of  Rameses  II.,  seventy 
feet  in  height.  This  temple  has  been  pronounced  the  greatest  and 
grandest  achievement  of  Egyptian  art. 
l>\  Sculpture :  Sphinxes  and  Colossi.  —  Egyptian  sculpture  grew 
out  of  painting  or  hieroglyphical  writing.  The  figure  or  charac- 
ter, at  first  a  mere  outline  drawing,  was  after  a  time  cut  into  the 
rock  surface,  and  next  the  rock  was  chiselled  away  so  as  to  leave 
the  figure  in  bas-relief.  Egyptian  mimetic  art  barely  reached 
the  point  so  early  attained  by  the  Greeks,  who  cut  the  figure  clear 


FACADE   OF   ROCK  TEMPLE   AT   IPSAMBUL. 

around,  and  forced  it  to  stand  out  boldly,  away  from  all  support. 
A  strange  immobility,  at  an  early  period,  attached  itself  to  Egyp- 
tian art,  due  to  the  influence  of  religion.^  The  artist,  in  the  por- 
trayal of  the  figures  of  the  gods,  was  not  allowed  to  change  a 

^  At  first,  great  freedom,  originality,  and  promise  characterized  Egyptian 
art,  which  is  generally  regarded  as  having  reached  its  highest  perfection  in 
the  monuments  of  the  Pyramid-builders, 


SCULPTURE:    SPHINXES  AND    COLOSSI. 


47 


single  line  in  the  sacred  form.  Hence  the  impossibility  of 
improvement  in  sacred  sculpture.  Wilkinson  says  that  Menes 
would  have  recognized  the  statue  of  Osiris  in  the  Temple  of 
Amasis.  Plato  complained  that  the  pictures  and  statues  in  the 
temples  in  his  day  were  no  better  than  those  made  "ten  thousand 
years"  before. 

The  heroic,  or  colossal,  size  of  many  of  the  Egyptian  statues 
excites  our  admiration.      The  two  colossi   of  Amunoph    III.  at 


COLOSSI    AT   THEBES. 


Thebes  are  forty-seven  feet  high,  and  are  hewn  each  from  a  single 
block  of  granite.  The  appearance  of  these  gigantic  figures,  upon 
the  solitary  plain,  is  peculiarly  impressive.  "There  they  sit 
together,  yet  apart,  in  the  midst  of  the  plain,  serene  and  vigilant, 
still  keeping  their  untired  watch  over  the  lapse  of  ages  and  the 
eclipse  of  Egypt." 


48        RELIGION,   ETC.,    OF   THE   ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 

One  of  these  colossi  acquired  a  wide  reputation  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  under  the  name  of  the  "Vocal  Memnon." 
When  the  rays  of  the  rising  sun  fell  upon  the  colossus,  it  emitted 
low  musical  tones,  which  the  Egyptians  believed  to  be  the  greeting 
of  the  statue  to  the  mother-sun.  These  mysterious  sounds,  it  has 
been  affirmed,  were  produced  by  a  person  concealed  by  the  priests 
in  the  lap  of  the  colossus.  It  is  more  probable  that  the  musical 
notes  were  produced  by  the  action  of  the  sun  upon  the  surface  of 
the  rock  while  wet  with  dew.^  "  It  had  not  been  produced  in  the 
colossus  before  the  earthquake  that,  about  the  time  of  Tiberius 
[Roman  Emperor,  a.d.  14-37],  threw  down  the  upper  part  of  the 
statue,  and  thus  uncovered  the  fissures  most  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  dew ;  it  ceased  when  the  statue  was  repaired  by  Septimius 
Severus  [Roman  Emperor,  a.d.  193-2 ii],  and  put  into  the  state 
in  which  we  now  see  it." 

The  sphinxes,  figures  having  commonly  the  head  of  a  man  and 
the  body  of  a  lion,  symbolizing  power  and  intelligence,  were 
often  ranked  along  the  avenues  leading  to  the  palaces  and  tem- 
ples. The  most  famous  of  the  sphinxes  of  Egypt  is  the  colossal 
figure  at  the  base  of  the  Great  Pyramid,  at  Gizeh,  sculptured,  some 
think,  by  Menes,  and  others,  by  one  of  the  kings  of  the  Fourth 
Dynasty.  This  immense  statue,  cut  out  of  the  native  rock,  save 
the  fore-legs,  which  are  built  of  masonry,  is  ninety  feet  long  and 
seventy  feet  high.  "  It  is  certainly  the  most  gigantic,  and  perhaps 
the  oldest,  idol  of  the  human  race."  Excavations  in  the  sand 
heaped  about  it  have  revealed  the  ruin  of  a  temple,  or  chapel, 
bet\veen  its  outstretched  paws.  "  This  huge,  mutilated  figure  has 
an  astonishing  effect ;  it  seems  like  an  eternal  spectre.  The  stone 
phantom  seems  attentive ;  one  would  say  that  it  hears  and  sees. 

1  Musical  rocks  are  found  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  The  phenom- 
enon is  connected  with  granite  rocks  along  the  course  of  the  Middle  Orinoco, 
in  South  America.  The  granite  is  split  with  deep  crevices,  that  seem  to  give 
emission  to  these  mysterious  sounds.  Humboldt  explained  the  phenomenon 
by  supposing  currents  of  air,  produced  by  the  heating  of  the  rocks,  to  beat 
against  the  spangles  of  mica  that  line  the  crevices. 


GLASS  MANUFACTURE.  49 

Its  great  ear  appears  to  collect  the  sounds  of  the  past ;  its  eyes, 
directed  to  the  east,  gaze,  as  it  were,  into  the  future ;  its  aspect 
has  a  depth,  a  truth  of  expression,  irresistibly  fascinating  to  the 
spectator.  In  this  figure  —  half  statue,  half  mountain  —  we  see  a 
wonderful  majesty,  a  grand  serenity,  and  even  a  sort  of  sweetness 
of  expression."  ^ 

Glass  Manufacture. — The  manufacture  of  glass,  a  discovery 
usually  attributed  to  the  Phoenicians,  was  carried  on  in  Eg}^pt 
more  than  four  thousand  years  ago.  The  paintings  at  Beni- 
Hassan  represent  glass-blowers  moulding  all  manner  of  articles. 
Glass  bottles,  and  various  other  objects  of  the  same  material,  are 
found  in  great  numbers  in  the  tombs.  Some  of  these  objects 
show  that  the  ancient  Egyptians  were  acquainted  with  processes 
of  coloring  glass  that  secured  results  which  we  have  not  yet  been 
able  to  equal.  They  imitated,  with  marvellous  success,  the  varie- 
gated hues  of  insects  and  stones.  The  manufacture  of  precious 
gems,  so  like  the  natural  stone  as  to  defy  detection,  was  a  lucra- 
tive profession.  The  sacred  scarabaei  (beetles)  were  reproduced 
in  glass,  with  linings  so  delicate  that  it  is  almost  certain  that 
magnifying-glasses  were  used  in  their  manufacture.  Glass  coffins 
were  sometimes  used.  Processes  for  cutting  and  grinding  glass  — 
patented  quite  recently  among  us  as  a  new  discovery  —  were  well 
known  to  the  Egyptian  artists. 

The  various  articles  of  glass  manufacture,  as  well  as  objects  of 
the  lapidary's  art,  which  were  produced  by  the  Egyptians,  were 
sought  after  and  highly  prized  by  all  the  nations  of  antiquity. 
They  are  found  in  the  tombs  of  Etruria  and  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor,  and  are  dug  from  the  palace-mounds  of  Assyria  and  Baby- 
lonia. The  Phoenicians,  being  carriers  of  all  this  vast  trade,  often 
received  credit,  among  the  peoples  to  whom  they  introduced  these 
articles,  for  various  inventions  and  discoveries  of  which  they  were 
simply  the  disseminators. 

1  Ampere,  as  quoted  by  Lenormant.  Ancient  History  of  the  East,  Vol.  I. 


50        RELIGION,   ETC.,    OF   THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 

The  Papyrus  Paper.  — The  chief  writing  material  used  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians  was  the  noted  papyrus  paper,  manufactured 
from  a  reed  which  grew  in  the  marshes  and  along  the  water- 
channels  of  the  Nile.  From  the  names  of  this  Egyptian  plant, 
byblos  and  papyrus,  come  our  words  "  Bible  "  and  "  paper."  The 
plant  has  now  entirely  disappeared  from  Egypt,  and  is  found  only 
on  the  Anapus,  in  the  island  of  Sicily,  and  on  a  small  stream  near 
Jaffa,  in  Palestine.  Long  before  the  plant  became  extinct  in  Egypt 
an  ancient  prophecy  had  declared,  "The  paper  reeds  by  the 
brooks  .  .  .  shall  wither,  be  driven  away,  and  be  no  more."^  The 
costly  nature  of  the  papyrus  paper  led  to  the  use  of  many  substi- 
tutes for  writing  purposes — as  leather,  broken  pottery,  tiles,  stones, 
and  wooden  tablets. 

Forms  of  Writing. — The  Egyptians  employed  three  forms  of 
writing  :  the  hiovglyphical,  consisting  of  mde  pictures  of  materia.1 
objects,  usually  employed  in  monumental  inscriptions ;  ^  the  hie- 
ratic, an  abbreviated  or  rather  simplified  form  of  the  hieroglyphi- 
cal,  adapted  to  writing,  and  forming  the  greater  part  of  the  papyrus 
manuscripts  ;  and  the  de7notic,  or  encorial,  a  still  simpler  form  than 
the  hieratic.  The  last  did  not  come  into  use  till  about  the  seventh 
century  B.C.,  and  was  then  used  for  all  ordinary  documents,  both 
of  a  civil  and  commercial  nature.  It  could  be  written  eight  or  ten 
times  as  fast  as  the  hieroglyphical  form. 

Key  to  Egyptian  Writing. — The  key  to  the  Egyptian  writing 
was  discovered  by  means  of  the  Rosetta  Stone,  for  which  the 
world  is  indebted  to  the  savants  that  accompanied  the  expedition 
of  Napoleon  in  1798.  This  valuable  relic,  a  heavy  block  of  black 
basalt,  is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  It  holds  a  trilingual  in- 
scription, written  in  hieroglyphic,  demotic,  and  Greek  characters. 
Champollion,  a  French  scholar,  by  comparing  the  characters  com- 
posing the  words  Ptolemy,  Alexander,  and  other   names  in  the 

^  Isa.  xix.  7. 

2  "The  hieroglyphical  writing  reveals  itself  to  us  in  the  monuments  of  the 
first  dynasties  with  all  that  complication  which  belonged  to  it  down  to  the 
last  day  of  its  existence."  —  Lenormant. 


ASTRONOMY.  51 

parallel  inscriptions,  discovered  the  value  of  several  letters ;  and 
thus  were  opened  the  vast  libraries  of  Egyptian  learning. 

We  have  now  the  Ritual,  or  Book,  of  the  Dead,  which  gives 
the  soul  minute  directions  how  to  meet  every  possible  emergency 
and  peril  in  its  journey  through  the  underworld;  novels,  or 
romances,  and  fairy  tales,  among  which  is  "  Cinderella  and  the 
Glass  Slipper,"  and  a  story  written  expressly  for  the  amusement 
of  the  little  son  of  Rameses  II. ;  autobiographies,  public  and  pri- 
vate letters,  fables,  and  epics ;  treatises  on  medicine,  astronomy, 
and  various  other  scientific  subjects;  and  books  on  history  —  in 
prose  and  verse  —  which  fully  justify  the  declaration  of  the  Egyp- 
tian priests  to  Solon  :  "  You  Greeks  are  mere  children,  talkative 
and  vain  ;  you  know  nothing  at  all  of  the  past." 

Of  all  this  literature,  the  novels  perhaps  possess  the  most  pecul- 
iar interest.  The  Egyptian  notion  of  the  transmigration  of  the 
soul  afforded  the  romancer  an  admirable  opportunity  to  introduce 
into  his  story  elements  which  to  our  mode  of  thinking  are  super- 
natural, but  which  to  the  old  Egyptian  readers  doubtless  seemed 
perfectly  natural.  Not  only  do  the  dead  reappear,  —  the  old  dry 
mummies  suddenly  warming  with  life  as  the  long-absent  souls  re- 
turn to  their  former  tenements,  —  but  animals  and  trees  are  made 
to  talk,  and  the  imprisoned  souls,  doing  penance  probably  for 
sins  committed  in  their  human  life,  converse  familiarly  with  men. 
Nor  does  the  premature  death  of  the  hero  or  heroine  cause 
the  novelist  any  embarrassment ;  the  tale  runs  right  on  as  though 
nothing  serious  had  happened.^  And  these  romances  afforded 
entertainment  not  alone  to  the  living,  for  they  were  sometimes 
put  in  the  tomb  "  to  amuse  the  leisure  of  the  dead." 

Astronomy.  —  The  cloudless  and  brilliant  skies  of  Egypt  must 
have  early  invited  the  inhabitants  of  the  Nile  valley,  like  the 
dwellers  of  the  Chaldsean  plains,  to  the  study  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  And  another  circumstance  closely  related  to  their  very 
existence,  the  inundation  of  the  Nile,  following  the  changing 
cycles  of  the  stars,  could  not  but  have  incited  them  to  the  watch- 

^  Rawlinson,  History  of  Ancient  Egypt,  Vol.  I.  p.  151, 


52        RELIGION,   ETC.,    OF   THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 

ing  and  predicting  of  astronomical  movements.  Their  observa- 
tions led  them  to  discover  the  length,  very  nearly,  of  the  sidereal 
year,  which  they  made  to  consist  of  365  days,  every  fourth  year 
adding  one  day,  making  the  number  for  that  year  366.  They 
also  divided  the  year  into  twelve  months  of  thirty  days  each, 
adding  five  days  to  complete  the  year.  This  was  the  calendar 
that  Julius  Caesar  introduced  into  the  Roman  Empire,  and  which, 
slightly  reformed  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  in  1582,  has  been  the 
system  employed  by  almost  all  the  civilized  world  up  to  the 
present  day. 

The  birth  of  astrology  was  natural,  and  its  absurdities  are 
mingled  with  all  the  more  solid  astronomical  attainments  of  the 
Egyptians.  They  noticed  that  the  rise  of  the  Nile  began  just  at 
the  heliacal  rising  of  the  bright  dog-star  Sirius,  and  they  naturally 
inferred  that  the  river  obeyed  some  subtle  influence  of  that  body. 
In  the  Red- Sea  they  saw,  too,  the  tides  rising  and  falling  under 
some  strange  impulse  from  the  wandering  sun  and  moon.  It 
was  an  easy  step  from  these  observed  influences  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  over  the  inanimate  world,  to  a  belief  in  their  benign  or 
baneful  influence  upon  the  vegetable  world,  and  over  human  life 
and  destiny. 

Geometry  and  Arithmetic.  —  The  Greeks  accounted  for  the 
early  rise  of  the  science  of  geometry  among  the  Egyptians  by 
reference  to  the  necessity  they  were  under  each  year  of  re-estab- 
lishing the  old  boundaries  of  their  fields  —  the  inundation  obliter- 
ating old  landmarks  and  divisions.  Diodorus  says,  "The  river, 
changing  the  appearance  of  the  country  very  materially  every 
year,  causes  various  and  many  discussions  among  neighboring 
proprietors  about  the  extent  of  their  property ;  and  it  would  be 
difflcult  for  any  person  to  decide  upon  their  claims  without  geo- 
metrical proof."  The  science  thus  forced  upon  their  attention 
was  cultivated  with  zeal  and  success.  A  single  papyrus  has  been 
discovered  that  holds  twelve  geometrical  theorems. 

Arithmetic  was  necessarily  brought  into  requisition  in  solving 
astronomical  and  geometrical  problems.     We  ourselves  are  great 


MEDICINE  AND    THE  ART   OF  EMBALMING.  53 

debtors  to  the  ancient  Egyptians  for  much  of  our  mathematical 
knowledge,  which  has  come  to  us  from  the  banks  of  the  Nile, 
through  the  Greeks  and  Saracens. 

Medicine  and  the  Art  of  Embalming.  —  The  custom  of  em- 
balming the  dead,  affording  opportunities  for  the  examination  of 
the  body,  without  doubt  had  a  great  influence  upon  the  devel- 
opment of  the  sciences  of  anatomy  and  medicine  among  the 
Egyptians.  That  the  embalmers  were  physicians,  we  know  from 
various  testimonies.  Thus  we  are  told  in  the  Bible  that  Joseph 
"  commanded  X}^^ physicians  to  embalm  his  father."  The  Egyptian 
doctors  had  a  very  great  reputation  among  the  ancients ;  several 
of  the  Persian  kings  attached  to  their  courts  medical  advisers 
from  the  schools  of  Egypt. 

Every  doctor  was  a  specialist,  and  was  not  allowed  to  take 
charge  of  cases  outside  of  his  own  branch.  As  the  artist  was  for- 
bidden to  change  the  hnes  of  the  sacred  statues,  so  the  physician 
was  not  permitted  to  treat  cases  save  in  the  manner  prescribed 
by  the  customs  of  the  past ;  and  if  he  were  so  presumptuous  as 
to  depart  from  the  established  mode  of  treatment,  and  the  patient 
died,  he  was  adjudged  guilty  of  murder.  Many  drugs  and  medi- 
cines were  used ;  the  ciphers,  or  characters,  employed  by  modern 
apothecaries  to  designate  grains  and  drams  are  of  Egyptian  in- 
vention. 

In  the  various  processes  of  embalming,  the  physicians  made 
use  of  oils,  resins,  bitumen,  and  various  aromatic  gums.  The 
bodies  of  the  wealthy  were  preserved  by  being  filled  with  costly 
aromatic  and  resinous  substances,  and  swathed  in  bandages  of 
linen.  The  face  was  sometimes  gilded,  or  covered  with  a  gold 
mask.  As  this,  which  was  the  "  most  approved  method  "  of  em- 
balming, was  very  costly,  the  expense  being  equivalent  probably 
to  ^looo  or  more,  the  bodies  of  the  poorer  classes  were  simply 
"  salted  and  dried,"  and  wrapped  in  coarse  mats,  preparatory  to 
burial.  It  is  estimated  that  "between  2000  b.c.  and  700  a.d., 
when  embalming  ceased,  420,000,000  mummied  corpses  "  were 
placed  in  the  various  Egyptian  cemeteries. 


54       RELIGION,   ETC.,    OF  THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 

The  Discovery  and  Identification  of  Royal  Mummies.  —  Only 
a  few  years  ago  (in  1881)  the  mummies  of  Thothmes  III.,  Seti  I., 
and  Rameses  II.,  together  with  those  of  about  forty  other  "  kings, 
queens,  princes,  and  priests,"  embracing  nearly  all  the  Pharaohs  of 
the  Eighteenth,  Nineteenth,  Twentieth,  and  Twenty-first  Dynasties, 
were  found  in  a  secret  cave  near  Thebes. 

It  seems  that,  some  time  in  the  12th  century,  some  sudden 
alarm  caused  these  bodies  to  be  taken  hastily  from  the  royal  tombs 
of  which  we  have  spoken  (see  p.  42),  and  secreted  in  this  hidden 
chamber.  When  the  danger  had  passed,  the  place  of  concealment 
had  evidently  been  forgotten ;  so  the  bodies  were  never  restored 
to  their  ancient  tombs,  but  remained  in  this  secret  cavern  to  be 
discovered  in  our  own  day. 

The  mummies  were  taken  to  the  Boulak  Museum,  at  Cairo, 
where  they  were  identified  by  means  of  the  inscriptions  upon  the 

cases  and  wrappings.  The  bodies  of  Seti 
I.,  Rameses  II.,  and  of  others  were  un- 
bandaged  (1886),  so  that  now  we  may 
look  upon  the  faces  of  the  greatest  and 
most  renowned  of  the  Pharaohs.  The 
faces  of  both  Seti  and  Rameses  are  so 
remarkably  preserved,  that  "  were  their 
subjects  to  return  to  the  earth  to-day  they 
could  not  fail  to  recognize  their  old  sover- 
eigns." Both  are  strong  faces,  of  Semitic 
cast,  that  of  Rameses  bearing  a  striking 
SETI  I.  (From  a  photograph  of  rcsemblancc  to  that  of  his  father  Seti, 
the  mummy.)  ^^^  ^^^^  closely  rcscmbling  their  portrait 

statues  and  profiles.  Professor  Maspero,  the  Director-General  of 
the  Excavations  and  Antiquities  of  Egypt,. in  his  official  report  of 
the  uncovering  of  the  mummies,  writes  as  follows  of  the  appearance 
of  the  face  of  Rameses  :  "  The  face  of  the  mummy  gives  a  fair  idea 
of  the  face  of  the  living  king.-  The  expression  is  unintellectual, 
perhaps  slightly  animal ;  but  even  under  the  somewhat  grotesque 
disguise  of  mummification,  there  is  plainly  to  be  seen  an  air  of 
sovereign  majesty,  of  resolve,  and  of  pride." 


EGYPT'S  INFLUENCE    UPON  HISTORY. 


55 


After  these  mighty  Pharaohs,  the  most  interesting  of  the  mum- 
mies is  that  of  Sekenen-Ra,  the  native  prince  who  raised  the  stand- 
ard of  revolt  against  the  Hyksos  invaders.    He  fell  in  battle,  pierced 


mjfS:li!&L 


PROFILE    OF   RAMESES    II.      (From  a  photograph  of  the  mummy.i) 

with  many  wounds,  which,  when  the  body  was  unwrapped,  were 
plainly  visible.     He  was  the  hero-martyr  of  the  patriot  movement 


1  For  this  cut  and  the  preceding  one  of  Seti  I.,  we  are  indebted  to  the  favor 
of  The  Century  Company.  On  the  subject  of  the  finding  and  identification  of 
the  Pharaohs,  consult  two  excellent  articles  in  T/ie  Century  Magazine  for  May, 
1887. 


56       RELIGION,   ETC.,    OF  THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 

which  drove  the  Shepherd  conquerors  from  the  land,  and  set  Amo- 
sis  upon  the  throne  of  the  ancient  Pharaohs. 

Egypt's  Influence  upon  History.  —  The  influence  of  the  arts, 
sciences,  learning,  and  institutions  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  upon 
the  Mediterranean  nations  is  but  just  beginning  to  be  realized. 
From  the  Nile  came  the  germs  of  much  found  in  the  later  culture 
of  Asia  and  of  Europe.  In  speaking  of  the  influence  of  the  politi- 
cal institutions  of  the  Egyptians,  Dr.  Smith  observes  :  "  The  Greeks 
regarded  the  laws  of  Egypt  as  the  expression  of  the  highest  wisdom 
and  the  fountain  of  inspiration  to  their  own  legislators  and  philoso- 
phers —  Lycurgus,  Solon,  Pythagoras,  and  Plato ;  and  the  likeness 
between  the  Egyptian  and  Jewish  codes  is  a  decisive  testimony 
alike  to  the  merit  of  the  former  and  to  the  purpose  for  which 
Moses  was  led  to  acquire  his  Egyptian  learning."  ^ 

1  Smith's  Ancient  History  of  the  East,  p.  191. 

"  It  has  been  said  that  *  the  forty-two  laws  of  the  Egyptian  religion  contained 
in  the  125th  chapter  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead  fall  short  in  nothing  of  the  teach- 
ings of  Christianity,'  and  conjectured  that  Moses,  in  compiling  his  code  of  laws, 
did  but  '  translate  into  Hebrew  the  religious  precepts  which  he  found  in  the 
sacred  books '  of  the  people  among  whom  he  had  been  brought  up.  Such  ex- 
pressions are,  no  doubt,  exaggerated;  but  they  convey  what  must  be  allowed  to 
be  a  fact  —  viz.,  that  there  is  a  very  close  agreement  between  the  moral  law  of 
the  Egyptians  and  the  precepts  of  the  Decalogue." —  Rawlinson,  History  of 
Ancient  Egypt^  VoL  I.  p.  104, 


r 


BASIN   OF   THE    TIGRIS  AND  EUPHRATES.  57 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE  CHALDEAN   MONARCHY. 

(FrOi.  about  4000  to  1300  B.C.) 

Basin  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  —  As  in  the  case  of  Egypt, 
so  in  that  of  the  valley  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  the  physical 
features  of  the  country  exerted  a  great  influence  upon  the  history 
of  its  ancient  peoples.  Differences  in  geological  structure  divide 
this  region  into  an  upper  and  a  lower  district ;  and  this  division 
in  natural  features  is  reflected,  as  we  shall  see,  throughout  its  politi- 
cal history.  The  northern  part,  which  comprised  ancient  Assyria, 
forms  undulating  plains,  so  elevated  above  their  streams  that  the 
waters  of  these  can  be  rendered  available  only  by  laborious  sys- 
tems of  irrigation. 

But  all  the  southern  portion  of  this  great  river-basin,  known  as 
Chaldaea,  or  Babylonia,  presents  quite  a  different  aspect.  This 
lower  district  has  been  formed  by  the  gradual  encroachment  of 
the  deposits  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  upon  the  waters  of  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  on  this  account  has  been  called  the  "Asian 
Egypt."  Owing  to  its  origin,  it  is  as  level  as  the  sea,  and  the  soil 
is  of  inexhaustible  fertility.  The  climate  is  almost  rainless,  and 
hence  agriculture  is  dependent  mainly  upon  artificial  irrigation. 
The  distribution  of  the  waters  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  was 
secured,  in  ancient  times,  by  a  stupendous  system  of  canals  and 
irrigants,  which,  at  the  present  day,  in  a  sand-choked  and  ruined 
condition,  spread  like  a  perfect  network  over  the  face  of  the 
country. 

The  productions  of  Babylonia  are  very  like  those  of  the  Nile 
valley.  The  luxuriant  growth  of  grain  upon  these  alluvial  flats 
excited  the  wonder  of  all  the  Greek  travellers  who  visited  the 


5S 


THE    CHALD^EAN  MONARCHY, 


East.  Herodotus  will  not  tell  his  countrymen  the  whole  truth,  for 
fear  they  will  doubt  his  veracity.  The  soil  is  as  fertile  now  as  in 
the  time  of  the  historian ;  but  owing  to  the  neglect  of  the  ancient 
canals,  the  greater  part  of  this  once  populous  district  has  been 
converted  into  alternating  areas  of  marsh  and  desert. 

The  Three  Great  Monarchies.  —  Within  the  Tigris-Euphrates 
basin,  three  great  empires  —  the  Chaldaean,  the  Assyrian,  and  the 


ANCIENT    BABYLONIAN   CANALS. 

Babylonian  —  successively  rose  to  prominence  and  dominion. 
Each,  in  turn,  not  only  extended  its  authority  over  the  valley,  but 
also  made  the  power  of  its  arms  felt  throughout  the  adjoining 
regions.  We  shall  now  trace  the  rise  and  the  varied  fortunes  of 
these  empires,  and  the  slow  growth  of  the  arts  and  sciences  from 


-THE   ACCADIANS.  59 

rude  beginnings  among  the  early  Chaldaeans  to  their  fuller  and 
richer  development  under  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  mon- 
archies. 

The  Accadians.  —  In  the  earliest  times  Lower  Chaldgea  was 
known  as  Shumir,  the  Shinar  of  the  Bible,  while  Upper  Chaldsea 
bore  the  name  of  Accad.  The  original  inhabitants  of  this  low 
country  are  conjectured  to  have  been  of  Turanian  race,  and  are 
called  Shumiro-Accadians,  or  simply  Accadians.  Many  scholars 
now  regard  it  as  probable  that  these  people  settled  in  the  valley 
as  early  at  least  as  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  millennium  before 
our  era.  They  seem  to  have  come  from  the  mountain  district 
southwest  of  the  Caspian.  That  they  came  originally  from  a  non- 
tropical, mountainous,  mineral-bearing  country,  is  inferred  from 
such  facts  as  that  their  name  Accadian  means  "  highlander,"  and 
that  while  they  had  names  for  metals,  they  had  no  word  for  palm. 

The  Accadians  are  believed  to  have  laid  the  basis  of  civilization 
in  the  Euphrates  valley,  so  that  with  them  the  history  of  Asian 
culture  begins.  They  brought  with  them  into  the  valley  the  art  of 
hieroglyphical  writing,  which  later  developed  into  the  well-known 
cuneiform  system.  They  also  had  quite  an  extensive  literature, 
and  had  made  considerable  advance  in  the  art  of  building. 

Semites  mingle  with  the  Accadians.  —  The  civilization  of  the 
Accadians  was  given,  it  would  seem,  a  great  impulse  by  the  arrival 
of  a  Semitic  people.  These  foreigners  were  nomadic  in  habits, 
and  altogether  much  less  cultured  than  the  Accadians.  Gradually, 
however,  they  adopted  the  arts  and  literature  of  the  people  among 
whom  they  had  settled;  yet  they  retained  their  own  language, 
which  in  the  course  of  time  superseded  the  less  perfect  Turanian 
speech  of  the  original  inhabitants  ;  consequently  the  mixed  people, 
known  later  as  Chaldaeans,^  that  arose  from  the  blending  of  the 
two  races,  spoke  a  language  essentially  the  same  as  that  used  by 
their  northern  neighbors,  the  Semitic  Assyrians. 

1  This  name  does  not  appear  in  the  inscriptions  before  the  9th  cen- 
tury B.C. 


60  THE    CHALDEAN  MONARCHY. 

Sargon  (Sharrukin)  I.  (3800?  b.c). — Although  we  know  some- 
thing about  the  arts  and  culture  of  the  early  Accadians,  still 
we  know  scarcely  anything  about  their  kings  or  their  political 
affairs  until  after  the  arrival  of  the  Semites.  Then,  powerful  kings, 
sometimes  of  Semitic  and  then  again  of  Turanian,  or  Accadian, 
origin,  appear  ruling  in  the  cities  of  Accad  and  Shumir,  and  the 
political  history  of  Chaldaea  begins. 

The  first  prominent  monarch  is  called  Sargon  I.  (Sharrukin),  a 
Semitic  king  of  Agade,  the  chief  city  at  this  time  of  the  upper 
country.  An  inscription  recently  deciphered  makes  this  king  to 
have  reigned  as  early  as  3800  b.c.^ 

Sargon  was  the  Chaldaean  Moses. ^  He  appears  to  have  been 
the  first  great  organizer  of  the  peoples  of  the  Chaldaean  plains. 
He  apparently  was  unable  to  bring  all  the  cities  of  Accad  and 
Shumir  under  his  sway,  still  he  built  up  a  powerful  state,  and 
extended  his  dominions  to  the  Mediterranean,  thus  bringing  the 
civilization  of  the  Euphrates  into  significant  contact  with  that 
rising  in  the  West. 

Yet  not  as  a  warrior,  but  as  a  patron  and  protector  of  letters,  is 
Sargon's  name  destined  to  a  sure  place  in  history.  He  classified 
and  translated  the  religious,  mythological,  and  astronomical  litera- 
ture of  the  Accadians,  and  deposited  the  books  in  great  libraries, 
which  he  established  or  enlarged,  —  the  oldest  and  most  valuable 
libraries  of  the  ancient  world.  His  relations  to  the  learning  of  his 
times  leads  the  scholar  Sayce  to  call  him  the  Chaldaean  Solomon. 

Ur-ea   (TTrukh)    (2800?  b.c).  —  Descending  ten  centuries,  we 

1  The  inscription  from  which  the  date  is  derived  is  upon  a  cyHnder  of  the 
last  Babylonian  king,  Nabonadius,  who  reigned  555-538  B.C.  He  says  that  in 
restoring  a  temple  at  Sippara,  he  found  a  cylinder  which  had  been  deposited 
3200  years  before  his  day  by  Naram-Sin,  the  son  of  Sargon. 

2  An  inscription  says :  "  My  mother  .  .  .  placed  me  in  an  ark  of  bulrushes; 
with  bitumen  my  door  she  closed  up ;  she  threw  me  into  the  river,  which  did 
not  enter  into  the  ark  to  me.  The  river  carried  me;  to  the  dwelling  of  Akki 
the  water-carrier  it  brought  me.  Akki  the  water-carrier,  in  his  goodness  of 
heart,  lifted  me  up  from  the  river.  Akki  the  water-carrier  brought  me  up  as 
his  own  son."  —  Records  of  the  Past,  Vol.  V.  p.  3. 


CONQUEST   OF  CHALD^A   BY   THE  ELAMITES.         61 

find  another  great  king,  now  of  the  Accadian  race,  named  Ur-ea 
(formerly  read  Urukh),  reigning  in  Chaldaea.  His  capital  city 
was  Ur,  in  the  southern  land  of  Shumir. 

This  king  appears,  even  to  a  greater  extent  than  did  Sargon,  to 
have  consolidated  the  petty  states  of  Babylonia  into  one  kingdom, 
and  to  have  ruled  over  the  cities  of  both  Shumir  and  Accad.  He 
is  best  known  to  us  through  the  remains  of  his  great  buildings. 
He  was,  with  perhaps  one  or  two  exceptions,^  the  first  great 
builder  among  the  kings  of  early  Chaldaea.  The  art  of  building 
in  his  day  had  made  considerable  advance,  and  many  of  his 
edifices  were  quite  richly  adorned. 

All  the  great  structures  of  this  king  were  tower-temples,  built  in 
several  stages,  and  somewhat  resembling  the  pyramids  of  Egypt. 
The  sites  of  these  edifices  are  marked  at  the  present  day  by  vast 
conical  hills  of  crumbled  ruins,  that  dot  thickly  the  Chaldsean 
plains.  From  the  vast  number  and  size  of  his  works  —  for  Urukh 
adorned  each  of  the  chief  cities  of  his  empire  with  a  great  temple 
—  we  may  infer  either  that  as  a  despot  he  had  at  his  command 
the  life  and  labor  of  his  subjects,  whom  he  oppressed  as  the  pyra- 
mid-building kings  of  Egypt  burdened  their  people,  or  that  as  a 
conqueror  he  set  to  the  task  the  captives  of  his  numerous  wars. 

Conquest  of  Chaldaea  by  the  Elamites  (2286  b.c).  —  While 
the  Chaldasan  kings  were  building  their  great  cities  and  pyramid- 
temples  on  the  plains  of  Lower  Babylonia,  the  princes  of  the 
Elamites,  a  people  of  Turanian  race,  were  setting  up  a  rival  king- 
dom to  the  northeast,  just  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  of  Persia.  The 
capital  of  this  Scythian  empire  was  Susa,  thought  to  be  one  of  the 
oldest,  if  not  the  very  oldest,  of  Asiatic  cities. 

In  the  year  2286  B.C.,  a  king  of  Elam,  Kudur-Nakhunta  by 
name,  overran  Chaldaea,  took  all  the  cities  founded  by  Sargon  and 
his  successors,  and  from  the  temples  of  Urukh  bore  off  in  triumph 
to  his  capital,  Susa,  the  statues  of  the  Chaldaean  gods,  and  set  up 
in  these  lowland  regions  what  is  known  as  the  Elamite  Dynasty. 

1  Gudea,  the  priest-king  of  Sirbula,  appears  to  have  erected  many  buildings; 
but  his  date  is  not  settled,  some  placing  him  before,  and  others  after,  Ur-ea. 


62  THE    CHALDEAN  MONARCHY. 

More  than  sixteen  hundred  years  after  this  despoiling  of  the 
Chaldsean  sanctuaries,  a  king  of  Nineveh  (Asshur-bani-pal)  cap- 
tured the  city  of  Susa,  and  found  there  these  stolen  statues  and 
caused  them  to  be  restored  to  their  original  temples  (see  p.  82). 

Chedorlaomer,  the  Conqueror.  —  Kudur-Nakhunta  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Kudur-Lagamer,  the  Chedorlaomer  of  Genesis, 
whose  contact  with  the  history  of  the  Jewish  patriarch  Abraham 
has  caused  his  name  to  be  handed  down  to  our  own  times  in  the 
records  of  the  Hebrew  people. 

Chedorlaomer  conceived  the  ambitious  project  of  uniting  all 
the  nations  and  tribes  of  Western  Asia,  between  the  hills  of  Persia 
and  the  Mediterranean,  in  one  gigantic  kingdom.  He  was  at 
least  partly  successful  in  his  plans ;  for  we  know  that  the  princes 
of  Elam  and  Babylonia,  and  some  of  the  kings  of  Syria,  paid 
tribute  to  him. 

Rawlinson,  in  reviewing  the  character  of  Chedorlaomer,  says  : 
*'  In  thus  effecting  conquests  which  were  not  again  made  from  the 
same  quarter  till  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  fifteen  or  sixteen 
hundred  years  afterwards,  Chedorlaomer  has  a  good  claim  to  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  remarkable  personages  in  the  world's 
history,  —  being,  as  he  is,  the  forerunner  and  prototype  of  all 
great  Oriental  conquerors  who  from  time  to  time  have  built  up 
vast  empires  in  Asia  out  of  heterogeneous  material,  which  have,  in 
a  longer  or  shorter  space,  successively  crumbled  to  decay." 

Chaldaea  eclipsed  by  Assyria.  —  After  the  Elamite  princes  had 
maintained  a  more  or  less  perfect  dominion  over  the  cities  of 
Chaldaea  for  two  or  three  centuries,  their  power  seems  to  have 
declined ;  and  then  for  several  centuries  longer,  down  to  about 
1300  B.C.,  dynasties  and  kings  of  which  we  know  very  little  as  yet, 
ruled  the  country. 

During  this  period,  Babylon,  gradually  rising  into  prominence, 
overshadowed  the  more  ancient  Accadian  cities,  and  became  the 
leading  city  of  the  land.  From  it  the  whole  country  was  destined, 
later,  to  draw  the  name  by  which  it  is  best  known  —  Babylonia. 

Meanwhile  a  Semitic  power  had  been  slowly  developing  in  the 


CHALD^EA   ECLIPSED  BY  ASSYRIA.  63 

north.  This  was  the  Assyrian  empire,  the  later  heart  and  centre 
of  which  was  the  great  city  of  Nineveh.  For  a  long  time  Assyria 
was  simply  a  province  or  dependency  of  the  lower  kingdom ;  but 
about  1300  B.C.,  the  Assyrian  monarch  Tiglathi-nin  (=Tiglath- 
Adar)  conquered  Babylonia,  and  Assyria  assumed  the  place  that 
had  been  so  long  held  by  Chaldaea.  From  this  time  on  to  the  fall 
of  Nineveh  in  606  B.C.,  the  monarchs  of  this  country  virtually 
controlled  the  affairs  of  Western  Asia. 


64 


ARTS  AND    CULTURE    OF  THE    CHALD.EANS. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

ARTS  AND  GENERAL  CULTURE  OF  THE  CHALD.^ANS. 

Tower-Temples.  —  In  the  art  of  building,  the  Chaldaeans, 
though  their  edifices  fall  far  short  of  attaining  the  perfection 
exhibited  by  the  earliest  Egyptian  structures,  displayed  no  incon- 
siderable architectural  knowledge  and  skill. 

The  most  important  of  their  constructions,  and  those  alone  of 
which  any  certain  traces  have  survived  to  our  own  day,  if  we 
except   their   burial   mounds,  were    their  tower-temples.     These 


„^s^^r- 


BABYLONIAN    BRICK. 


were  simple  in  plan,  consisting  oi  two  or  three  terraces,  or  stages, 
placed  one  upon  another  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  rude  pyramid. 
The  material  used  in  their  construction  was  sun-dried  brick,  the 
hills  of  Arabia  and  Persia  being  too  distant  to  encourage  the  use 
of  stane  in  any  considerable  quantity.     The  structure  was  some- 


BURIAL  MOUNDS.  65 

times  protected  by  outer  courses  of  burnt  brick.  Surmounting  the 
upper  platform  was  the  temple  proper,  reached  by  stairs  running 
up  the  sides  of  the  stages.  From  the  enamelled  bricks,  flakes  of 
alabaster  and  marble,  and  occasional  plates  of  gold  found  in  the 
rubbish  on  the  top  of  the  mounds,  we  may  infer  the  beauty  and 
richness  of  the  shrine. 

All  these  tower-temples  have  crumbled  into  vast  mounds,  with 
only  here  and  there  a  projecting  mass  of  masonry  to  distinguish 
them  from  natural  hills,  for  which  they  were  at  first  mistaken.  It  is 
probable  that  they  were  used  as  astronomical  observatories,  and 
that  from  their  summits  the  Chaldaean  astrologers  watched  the 
changing  aspect  of  the  stars. 

Burial  Mounds.  —  The  coffins  of  the  Chaldaeans  have  been 
pronounced  the  most  curious  sepulchral  monuments  of  antiquity. 
(Rawlinson.)  One  kind  consisted  of  a  large  terra-cotta  cover, 
which  was  turned  over  the  body,  placed  on  a  mat.  Another  kind 
was  made  of  two  large  jars,  placed  mouth  to  mouth,  the  joint 
being  closed  by  bitumen.  These  curious  coffins  were  deposited 
in  tiers,  in  artificial  mounds,  often  of  vast  extent.  In  the  burial 
mounds  about  the  city  of  Wurka,  the  coffins  are  piled  fifty  deep. 
All  about  these  mounds,  the  ground  for  miles  on  every  side  is 
filled  with  graves.  It  has  been  estimated  that  a  greater  number 
of  bodies  rest  here  than  in  the  necropohs  of  Thebes.  (Loftus.)  So 
exalted  was  the  sanctity  that  had  attached  to  the  ancient  city  of 
Wurka,  that  for  more  than  two  thousand  years  the  spot  was  a 
sacred  burial-place,  not  only  for  the  Chaldaeans,  but  also,  it  is 
conjectured,  for  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians,  as  no  tombs  have 
ever  been  found  in  Assyria  or  Upper  Babylonia. 

All  the  oldest  cities  in  Chaldsea  are  thus  surrounded  by  vast 
cemeteries.  Bodies  were  transported  long  distances  by  the  Tigris 
and  the  Euphrates,  that  they  might  repose  at  last  in  sacred 
ground.  A  similar  sentiment  still  impels  the  Mohammedans  in 
the  same  land  to  carry  the  bodies  of  friends  vast  distances,  in 
order  to  lay  them  near  the  shrine  of  some  celebrated  saint. 

Cuneiform    Writing.  —  We   have  already  mentioned  the  fact 


66  ARTS  AND    CULTURE    OF   THE    CHALDEANS. 

that  the  Accadians,  when  they  entered  the  Euphrates  valley,  were 
in  possession  of  a  system  of  writing.  This  was  a  simple  pictorial, 
or  hieroglyphical,  system,  which  they  gradually  developed  into  the 
cuneiform.  We  can  trace  the  same  stages  here  in  the  development 
of  the  art  of  writing  as  are  observed  in  its  growth  among  the  Egyp- 
tians. 

We  may  distinguish  five  forms ;  the  hieroglyphic,  the  hieratic^ 
the  archaic  cuneiform,  the  modeiii  cuneifonn,  and  the  cursive. 
The  first  and  second  are  the  same  as  the  corresponding  forms  in 
Egyptian  writing,  and  the  one  grew  out  of  the  other  in  the  same 
way. 

The  archaic  cuneiform  is  the  same  as  the  hieratic,  only  the  char- 
acters, instead  of  being  formed  of  unbroken  lines,  are  composed  of 
wedge-like  marks  ;  hence  the  name  (from  r//;/^//^-,  a  wedge).  This 
form  arose  when  the  Accadians,  having  entered  the  low  country, 
substituted  tablets  of  clay  for  the  papyrus  or  other  similar  material 
which  they  had  formerly  used.  (Sayce.)  The  characters  were 
impressed  upon  the  soft  tablet  by  means  of  a  triangular  stylus, 
which  gave  them  their  peculiar  wedge-shaped  form. 

The  modern  cuneiform  is  simply  an  abbreviated  form  of  the 
preceding ;  and  the  cursive  is  a  still  further  simplification  of  the 
last.  The  modern  cuneiform  and  cursive  were  not  developed  by 
the  Chaldseans,  but  by  the  Assyrians,  who  borrowed  their  system 
of  writing,  as  well  as  many  other  elements  of  their  culture,  from 
the  people  they  had  conquered. 

The  characters  employed  in  all  these  modes  of  writing  were  of 
two  kinds  —  ideographic  and  phonetic.  The  former  were  symbols 
representing  entire  words  or  ideas ;  the  latter,  several  hundred  in 
number,  represented  each  a  syllable,  and  thus  constituted  a  sylla- 
barium  rather  than  a  true  alphabet.  In  its  earliest  stages  the 
archaic  cuneiform  writing  was  made  up  largely  of  ideographs ;  but 
it  gradually  became  more  and  more  phonetic,  until  the  syllabic 
characters  formed  the  larger  part  of  the  inscription. 

Although  the  Chaldaeans,  and  the  Assyrians  after  them,  advanced 
so  far  in  the  difficult  art  of  depicting  thought,  still  they  failed  to 


BOOKS  AND   LIBRARIES.  67 

take  the  last  step  —  to  analyze  the  syllable  into  its  simplest  ele- 
ments or  sounds,  and  then  represent  each  of  the^e  by  a  single 
character.  The  honor  of  this  achievement  was  left  to  another 
people  and  race.  It  was  not  until  more  than  two  thousand  years 
after  the  first  improvements  had  been  made  in  rude  picture-writing 
by  the  Chaldaeans,  that  the  Persians,^  beyond  the  Zagros  ranges,  to 
the  east  of  the  lowlands,  finally  took  the  step  which  marks  the 
crowning  achievement  in  the  development  of  the  greatest  of  human 
arts.  That  people  reduced  language  to  its  ultimate  elements,  and 
with  thirty-six  characters  represented  all  its  elementary  sounds. 
They  thus  replaced  the  cumbrous  syllabic  with  the  pliant  alphabeti- 
cal system.  Thus  the  Turanian  Accadians,  the  Semitic  Assyrians, 
and  the  Aryan  Persians  —  all  contributed  to  the  grand  result.  So, 
slowly  and  painfully,  are  wrought  out  the  elements  of  human  arts 
and  culture. 

The  cuneiform  mode  of  writing  was  in  use  about  two  thousand 
years,  being  employed  by  the  nations  in  and  near  the  Euphrates 
basin  —  that  is,  by  the  Chaldaeans,  the  Assyrians,  the  Babylonians, 
the  Susianians,  the  Armenians,  the  Medes,  and  the  Persians  — 
down  to  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  the  East  by  the  Macedonians 
(about  330  B.C.). 

Books  and  Libraries.  —  The  books  of  the  Chaldaeans  were 
in  general  clay  tablets,  varying  in  length  from  one  inch  to  twelve 
inches,  and  being  about  one  inch  thick.  They  were  closely 
written  on  both  sides,  and  often  over  the  edges,  the  characters  em- 
ployed being  the  cuneiform,  already  described.  Those  holding 
records  of  special  importance  were,  after  having  been  once  written 
over  and  baked,  covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  clay,  and  then  the 
matter  was  written  in  duplicate  and  the  tablets  again  baked.  If 
the  outer  writing  were  defaced  by  accident  or  altered  by  design, 

1  It  is  possible  that  the  honor  of  the  reduction  of  the  hieroglyphical  cunei- 
form writing  to  a  purely  alphabetical  mode  of  representation  should  be  given 
to  the  Medes  rather  than  to  the  Persians.  In  any  event,  it  must  be  allowed  that 
the  Persians,  even  though  they  be  denied  the  honor  of  original  inventors,  im- 
proved and  perfected  the  system. 


68 


ARTS  AND    CULTURE    OF   THE    CHALDEANS. 


the  removal  of  the  outer  coating  would  at  once  show  the   true 

text. 

The  tablets  were  carefully  preserved  in  great  public  libraries. 
Even  during  the  Turanian  period,  before  the  Semites  had  entered 
the  land,  one  or  more  of  these  collections  existed  in  each  of  the 
chief  cities  of  Accad  and  Shumir.  "  Accad,"  says  Sayce,  "  was  the 
China  of  Asia.  Almost  every  one  could  read  and  write."  Erech 
(Urukh)  was  especially  renowned  for  its  great  library,  and  was 
known  as  "  the  City  of  Books." 


(^ 


CHALD/EAN   TABLETS.      (After  Layard.) 


How  the  Contents  of  the  Accadian  Libraries  were  preserved. 

—  All  the  books  in  the  earhest  Accadian  Ubraries  were  written,  ol 
course,  in  the  old  Turanian  language  used  by  the  Accadians,  and 
had  these  tablets  not  been  translated  into  another  tongue  before 
that  Accadian  speech  became  a  dead  language  (it  became  extinct, 
according  to  Sayce,  about  1700  B.C.),  it  is  very  doubtful  whether 
we  should  ever  have  known  anything  about  their  contents.  But 
fortunately  the  Semitic  princes  that  came  to  rule  in  the  Accadian 


HOW  ACCADIAN  LIBRARIES    WERE   PRESERVED.       69 

cities  were,  some  of  them  at  least,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  case  of 
Sargon  I.,  patrons  of  literature,  and  to  them  it  is  that  we  are 
indebted  for  the  preservation  of  what  is  perhaps  the  oldest  litera- 
ture of  the  world. 

We  have  noticed  how  Sargon  L,  king  of  Agade,  devoted  him- 
self to  the  work  of  collecting  and  systematizing  the  literature 
of  the  Accadians.  Now,  even  in  his  day,  the  Accadian  language 
was  already  being  superseded  by  the  Semitic,  and  he  consequently 
had  all  the  Accadian  books  of  most  importance  turned  into  Se- 
mitic, or  Assyrian.  In  doing  this  he  was  careful  to  have  his 
scribes  copy  the  old  text  also,  so  that  the  new  tablets  were  exact 
reproductions  of  the  old,  with  an  interlinear  translation.  Some- 
times, however,  the  two  texts  were  written  in  parallel  columns. 
Sargon  further  ordered  the  compilation  of  grammars  and  lexicons 
of  the  Accadian  language,  as  additional  aids  in  its  study. 

Long  after  Sargon's  time,  when  Assyria  had  risen  into  power 
and  eclipsed  Babylonia,  one  of  the  kings  of  that  country  (see  p.  93) 
had  copies  made  of  these  bilingual  tablets,  and  deposited  these 
copies  in  the  royal  library  of  Nineveh.  These  it  is  that  we  now 
possess.  In  this  way  was  a  good  part  of  the  contents  of  the  first 
libraries  of  the  race  preserved  to  become  the  inestimable  treasure 
of  the  present  generation. 

To  the  purely  Accadian  literature  derived  from  the  old  libraries 
of  Accad  and  Shumir,  there  was  added  during  the  Semitic  period 
a  great  mass  of  fresh  literature,  —  legends,  heroic  myths,  and 
sacred  hymns,  which  grew  up  after  the  Semites  and  Turanians 
had  blended,  or  while  they  were  blending,  into  one  people.  Quite 
a  different  spirit  from  that  which  characterizes  the  earlier  pervades 
this  later  literature,  especially  the  religious  portion  of  it,  of  which 
we  shall  say  something  in  a  moment. 

Embracing  in  one  view  the  earUer  and  later  Chaldsean  tablets, 
we  find  them  to  cover  the  greatest  possible  variety  of  subjects. 
There  are  mythological  tablets,  which  hold  the  myths  of  the  Chal- 
daeans  respecting  their  gods ;  rehgious  tablets,  filled  with  prayers 
and  hymns;   legal   tablets,  containing  laws,  law-cases,  contracts, 


70  ARTS  AND    CULTURE    OF   THE    CHALDEANS. 

wills,  loans,  and  various  other  matters  of  a  commercial  nature  ; 
legendary  and  epic  tablets ;  and  astronomical,  geographical,  his- 
torical, and  mathematical  tablets,  illustrating  the  wisdom  of  the 
Chaldseans  in  all  these  matters. 

We  will  say  just  a  word  of  what  the  tablets  reveal  respecting 
the  religion  and  mythology  of  the  Chaldseans,  and  of  the  state  of 
science  among  them. 

The  Religion.  —  The  tablets  hold  a  large  religious  literature. 
Those  belonging  to  the  earliest  Accadian  period  open  up  to  us 
what  is  perhaps  the  first  and  most  instructive  chapter  in  the 
religious  history  of  the  race. 

The  Accadian  religion,  for  religion  it  must  be  called,  although 
it  was  of  a  very  low  type,  was  essentially  the  same  as  that  held 
to-day  by  the  nomadic  Turanian  tribes  of  Northern  Asia  —  what 
is  known  as  Shamanism.  It  consisted  in  a  belief  in  good  and 
evil  spirits,  of  which  the  latter  held  by  far  the  most  prominent 
place.  To  avert  the  malign  influence  of  these  wicked  spirits,  the 
Accadians  had  resort  to  charms  and  magic  rites.^ 

But  even  before  the  arrival  of  the  Semites,  the  Accadian  re- 
ligion had  advanced  from  the  Shamanistic  stage  into  the  poly- 
theistic. Not  only  had  the  good  spirits  come  to  hold  a  more 
prominent  place  in  the  religious  system,  but  some  of  them  had 
been  lifted  to  positions  of  pre-eminence  among  the  others,  and 
had  become  real  deities.  The  tablets  are  now  filled,  not  alone 
with  incantations,  but  with  prayers  and  with  hymns  of  praise  to 
the  gods. 

By  the  time  the  Accadians  had  reached  this  stage  in  their 
religious  progress,  the  Semites  had  come  into  the  land.  Their 
religion  was  a  form  of  Sabaeanism,  —  that  is,  a  worship  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  —  in  which  the  sun  was  naturally  the  central  ob- 
ject of  adoration.  The  two  systems  now  blended  to  form  one  of 
the  most  influential  religions  of  the  world  —  one  which  spread  far 
and  wide  under  the  form  of  Baal  worship.  The  Chaldaean  pan- 
theon was  now  formed,  chiefly  by  the  early  Semitic  kings  of  Accad 

1  Consult  Records  of  the  Past,  I.  135;   and  III.  142. 


THE   RELIGION.  71 

and  Shumir.     "  The  same  kings  that  organized  men  below,"  says 
Sayce,  "  organized  the  gods  above." 

The  order  of  the  chief  gods  in  the  perfected  system  was  as 
follows  :  At  the  head  of  the  Pantheon  was  II,  or  Ra,  the  latter 
name  being  one  of  the  titles  of  the  Egyptian  Osiris,  and  the 
former  being  the  root  of  the  Hebrew  Elohim  and  of  the  Arabian 
Allah.^  Below  II  was  a  triad  —  Ana,  Belus,  and  Hoa,  gods  of  the 
earth,  of  the  heaven,  and  of  the  waters,  and  corresponding, 
Rawlinson  ventures  to  think,  to  the  classical  Pluto,  Jupiter,  and 
Neptune.  Next  to  these  divinities  was  a  second  triad  —  Sin 
(Moon),  San,  or  Shamas  (Sun),  and  Bin,  or  Vul  (x\tmosphere) . 
Then  come  five  planetary  deities,  representing  Saturn,  Jupiter, 
Mars,  Venus,  and  Mercury,  embracing  all  the  planets  visible  to 
the  naked  eye.  Besides  these  divinities,  which  constituted  the 
twelve  primary  gods,  there  were  numerous  secondary  and  local 
deities  and  genii,  for  room  was  made  in  the  new  system  for  all  the 
spirits  of  the  Turanian  system,  as  well  as  for  the  deities  of  the 
Semitic  worship. 

The  Semites  changed  not  only  the  outer  forms  of  the  Accadian 
religion,  but  they  infused  into  it  a  deeper  and  truer  religious 
feeling.  This  inner  change  is  best  illustrated  by  what  are  called 
the  Penitential  Psalms,^  which  breathe  the  same  spirit  as  that 
which  pervades  the  Psalms  of  David  ;  and  by  the  teachings  of  a 
monotheistic  sect,  which  show  that  at  least  some  minds  of  spiritual 
vision  had  caught  sight  of  the  truth  that  there  is  but  one  God. 

What  lends  to  this  religious  movement  a  transcendent  interest 
is  the  fact  that  this  lofty  idea,  though  it  seems  to  have  faded  out 
in  Chaldsea,  was  not  lost  to  the  world.  In  "Ur  of  the  Chaldees," 
Abraham  embraced  the  grand  doctrine,  which  was  to  be  the  idea 
of  the  future.  He  carried  it  up  into  Palestine,  and  a  long  line  of 
Hebrew  teachers  handed  it  down  to  later  generations,  as  the  most 
precious  bequest  of  all  antiquity. 

There  were  still  other  outcomes  of  this  old  Chaldasan  religion 

1  Rawlinson's  Ancient  Monarchies,  Vol.  I.  p.  1 14. 

2  See  Records  of  the  Past,  Vol.  VII.  pp.  153-156. 


72  ARTS  AND    CULTURE   OF    THE    CHALDEANS. 

which  were  destined  to  exert  a  wide-spread  and  potent  influence 
upon  the  minds  of  men.  Out  of  the  Sabsean  Semitic  element 
grew  astrology,  the  art  of  forecasting  events  by  the  aspect  of  the 
stars,  which  was  most  elaborately  and  ingeniously  developed,  until 
the  fame  of  the  Chaldaean  astrologers  was  spread  throughout  the 
ancient  world,  while  the  spell  of  their  art  held  in  thraldom  the 
mind  of  mediaeval  Europe. 

Out  of  the  Shamanistic  element  contributed  by  the  Turanian 
Accadians,  grew  a  system  of  magic  and  divination  which  had  a 
most  profound  influence  not  only  upon  all  the  Eastern  nations, 
including  the  Jews,  but  also  upon  the  later  peoples  of  the  West. 
Mediaeval  necromancy  and  witchcraft  were,  in  large  part,  an 
unchanged  inheritance  from  Chaldaea.^ 

The  "  Chaldaean  Genesis."  —  The  cosmological  myths  and  leg- 
ends of  the  Chaldaeans  were  the  fountain-head  of  the  stream  of 
Hebrew  cosmogony. 

The  discoveries  and  patient  labors  of  various  scholars  have 
reproduced,  in  a  more  or  less  perfect  form,  from  the  legendary 
tablets,  the  Chaldaean  account  of  the  Creation  of  the  World,  of  an 
ancestral  Paradise  and  the  Tree  of  Life  with  its  cherub  wardens, 
of  the  Deluge,  and  of  the  Tower  of  Babel.^ 

All  these  legends  and  myths  are  remarkably  like  the  Biblical 
accounts  of  the  several  matters  with  which  they  deal,  showing  that 
before  the  Abrahamic  clan  migrated  from  Chaldaea,  all  this  litera- 
ture had  become  the  prized  and  sacred  possession  of  the  peoples 
of  the  Chaldaean  plains. 

1  The  popular  beliefs  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages  respecting  evil  spirits, 
exorcisms,  and  charms,  and  regarding  witches  and  the  characteristics  of  the 
Chief  of  the  powers  of  evil,  are  simply  survivals  from  the  old  Chaldaean  culture. 
Thus  the  Chaldaean  witch  was  believed  to  possess  the  power  of  flying  through 
the  air  on  a  stick,  and  "  the  features  of  the  mediaeval  devil  may  be  traced  on 
an  Assyrian  bas-relief,  which  represents  the  dragon  of  chaos,  with  claws,  tail, 
horns,  and  wings,  pursued  by  the  sun-god,  Merodack."  —  Sayce,  The  Ancient 
Empires  of  the  East,  pp.  154,  155. 

2  Consult  especially  George  Smith's  The  Chaldczan  Account  of  Genesis ; 
see  also  Records  of  the  Past,  Vol.  VII.  pp.  127,  131. 


THE    CHALDEAN  EPIC   OF  IZDUBAR. 


73 


The  Chaldaean  versions  of  tliese  traditions,  however,  are  not  so 
simple  and  pure  as  the  BibHcal  narratives ;  for,  being  the  legends 
and  myths  of  a  people  of  a  polytheistic  belief,  they  are  of  course 
tinged  with  the  religious  notions  of  those  who  invented  or  recited 
them,  and  attribute  to  various  deities  works  and  acts  which  the 
Hebrew  writers  refer  to  the  one  God,  Jehovah.  In  a  word,  all 
these  ancient  legends  and  myths  were  moraUzed  and  spiritualized 
by  the  great  teachers  and  prophets  of  the  Hebrew  race. 

The  Chaldaean  Epic  of  Izdubar.  —  Besides  their  cosmological 
myths,  or  stories  of  the  origin  of  things,  the  Chaldaeans  had  a  vast 


ASSYRIAN      TABLET   WITH    PARTS   OF   THE    DELUGE    LEGEND. 


number  of  so-called  heroic  and  nature  myths.  The  most  noted 
of  these  form  what  is  known  as  the  Epic  of  Izdubar  (Nimrod?), 
which  is  doubtless  the  oldest  epic  of  the  race.  This  is  in  twelve 
parts,  and  is  really  a  solar  myth,  which  recounts  the  twelve  labors 
of  the  sun  in  his  yearly  passage  through  the  twelve  signs  of  the 
Chaldaean  zodiac. 

This  epic  was  carried  to  the  West,  by  the  way  of  Phoenicia  and 
Asia  Minor,  and  played  a  great  part  in  the   mythology  of  the 


74  ARTS  AND    CULTURE    OF   THE    CHALD.EANS. 

Greeks  and  Romans.  "The  twelve  labors  of  Heracles  may  be 
traced  back  to  the  adventures  of  Gisdhubar  (Izdubar)  as  re- 
corded in  the  twelve  books  of  the  great  epic  of  Chaldsea."  (Sayce.) 
And  as  the  Chaldean  hero  Izdubar  is  the  prototype  of  the 
Greek  hero  Heracles,  so  many  other  heroes  and  heroines  of 
the  Chaldsean  stories  are  the  originals  or  analogues  of  those  of 
the  classical  myths.  Thus  Ishtar  (Istar) ,  the  Chaldcean  goddess 
of  love,  reappears  in  the  West  as  the  Aphrodite  of  the  Greeks. 
One  of  the  most  beautiful  passages  in  the  great  Chaldsean  epic  tells 
of  Ishtar's  descent  into  the  realm  of  shades  in  search  of  her  be- 
loved Tammuz,  just  as  Aphrodite  descends  into  Hades  for  her 
lost  Adonis.  There  is  a  Chaldean  Prometheus,  too,  —  Zu,  by 
name,  — who  steals  the  lightning  of  Bel,  and  suffers  punishment 

for  the  act. 

Science.  —  In  astronomy  and  its  associate  science,  arithmetic, 
the  Chaldaeans  made  substantial  progress.  The  clear  sky  and  un- 
broken horizon  of  the  Chaldaean  plains,  lending  an  unusually  bril- 
liant aspect  to  the  heavens,  naturally  led  the  Chaldaeans  to  the  study 
of  the  stars.  They  early  divided  the  zodiac  into  twelve  signs, 
and  named  the  zodiacal  constellations,  a  memorial  of  their  astro- 
nomical attainments  which  will  remain  forever  inscribed  upon  the 
great  circle  of  the  heavens;  they  foretold  eclipses,  constructed 
gnomons,  or  sun-dials,  of  various  patterns,  divided  the  year  into 
twelve  months,  and  the  day  and  night  into  twelve  hours  each,  and 
invented  or  devised  the  week  of  seven  days,  the  number  of  days  in 
the  week  being  determined,  it  seems,  by  the  course  of  the  moon. 
"The  7th,  14th,  19th,  21st,  and  28th  days  of  the  lunar  month 
were  kept  like  the  Jewish  Sabbath,  and  were  actually  so  named  in 
Assyria.  ...  On  these  days  it  was  forbidden,  at  all  events  in  the 
Accadian  period,  to  cook  food,  to  change  one's  dress  or  wear 
white  robes,  to  offer  sacrifice,  to  ride  in  a  chariot,  to  legislate,  to 
practice  augury,  or  even  to  use  medicine."  ^ 

The    influence   upon  the  world  of  this    remarkable    calendar, 
1  Sayce,  The  Ancient  Empires  of  the  East,  p.  171;   see  also  Records  of  the 
Past,  Vol.  VII.  p.  157. 


CONCLUSION.  75 

worked  out  by  the  old  Chaldsean  star-gazers  and  priest-astron- 
omers, has  been,  and  is  still,  so  great,  that  it  may  fairly  be  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  important  and  potent  factors  in  the  civilization 
of  the  world. 

In  arithmetic,  also,  the  Chaldseans  made  considerable  advance. 
A  tablet  has  been  found  which  contains  the  squares  and  cubes  of 
the  numbers  from  one  to  sixty.  The  duodecimal  system  in  num- 
bers was  the  invention  of  the  Chaldseans,  and  it  is  from  them 
probably  that  the  system  has  come  to  us. 

Conclusion. — This  hasty  glance  at  the  beginnings  of  civiliza- 
tion among  the  primitive  peoples  of  the  Euphrates  valley,  will 
serve  to  give  us  at  least  some  little  idea  of  how  much  we  owe  to 
the  old  Chaldseans.  In  the  words  of  Rawlinson,  "  Chaldtea  stands 
forth  as  the  great  parent  and  inventress  of  Asiatic  civilization"; 
and  as  we  now  know  the  classical  nations,  whose  inheritors  we  are, 
to  have  received  from  the  Oriental  nations  many  at  least  of  the 
primary  elements  of  their  art,  of  their  literature,  and  of  their 
mythology,  we  may  say  that  Chaldoea  was  one  of  the  main  sources 
—  Egypt  was  the  other  —  of  the  stream  of  universal  history. 

And  now,  having  found  in  the  remote  civilizations  of  Egypt  and 
Chaldaea  the  sources  of  this  great  stream,  we  shall  proceed  to 
trace  its  course  through  the  ages,  and  shall  watch  its  rising  tide,  as 
it  receives  fresh  contributions  on  every  hand,  until  it  grows  into 
the  wide  and  deep  stream  of  modern  culture. 


76  THE  ASSYRIAN  MONARCHY. 


CHAPTER   V. 

THE  ASSYRIAN   MONARCHY. 

(From  an  unknown  date  to  606  B.C.) 

Introduction.  —  In  preceding  chapters  we  traced  the  beginnings 
of  Asiatic  civiHzation  among  the  early  settlers  of  the  lowlands  of 
the  Euphrates.  Meanwhile,  as  has  already  been  noticed,  farther 
to  the  north,  upon  the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  were  growing  into 
strength  and  prominence  a  rival  Semitic  people  —  the  Assyrians  — 
to  whom  were  now  to  be  transferred,  for  preservation  and  enrich- 
ment, the  arts  and  sciences  and  primitive  culture  of  the  Chaldaean 
plains. 

In  tracing  the  dynastic,  or  political,  history  of  Assyria,  we  shall 
mention  only  those  kings  whose  wide  conquests  or  great  works,  or 
the  strength  of  whose  character  or  the  greatness  of  whose  misfor- 
tunes, have  caused  their  names  to  live  among  the  renowned  per- 
sonages of  the  ancient  world. 

Tiglath-Pileser  I.  (1130-1110  e.g.).  —  It  is  not  until  about  two 
centuries  after  the  conquest  of  Chaldsea  by  the  Assyrian  prince 
Tiglathi-Nin  (see  p.  (i-^,  that  we  find  a  sovereign  of  renown  at  the 
head  of  Assyrian  affairs.  This  was  Tiglath-Pileser  I.,  who  came  to 
the  throne  about  1130  B.C.  We  know  more  of  his  reign  than  of 
that  of  any  preceding  king,  through  the  fortunate  discovery  of  a 
clay  cylinder  containing  the  royal  records.  It  details  at  great 
length  the  various  war-expeditions  of  Tiglath-Pileser,  and  describes 
the  great  works  which  he  constructed.  So  we  can  listen  to  the 
king  himself,  while,  in  his  self-laudatory  style,  he  narrates  his  great 
exploits,  and  glories  in  the  number  and  extent  of  his  conquests. 

"There  fell  into  my  hands  altogether,"  says  this  inscription, 
"  between  the  commencement  of  my  reign  and  my  fifth  year,  forty- 


ASSHUR-NAZIR-PAL.  77 

two  countries,  with  their  kings,  from  the  banks  of  the  river  Zab  to 
the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  the  country  of  the  Khatti,^  and  the 
upper  ocean  of  the  setting  sun  [Mediterranean].  I  brought  them 
under  one  government ;  I  took  hostages  from  them ;  and  I  im- 
posed on  them  tribute  and  offerings."  ^ 

He  speaks  as  follows  of  the  restoration  of  a  temple  :  "  In  the 
beginning  of  my  reign,  Anu  and  Vul,  the  great  gods,  my  lords, 
guardians  of  my  steps,  gave  me  a  command  to  repair  this  their 
shrine.  So  I  made  bricks ;  I  levelled  the  earth ;  .  .  .  fifty  feet 
deep  I  prepared  the  lower  foundations  of  the  temple  of  Anu  and 
Vul.  From  its  foundation  to  its  roof  I  built  it  up  better  than  it 
was  before.  I  also  built  two  lofty  towers  in  honor  of  their  noble 
godships ;  and  the  holy  place,  a  spacious  hal),  I  consecrated  for 
the  convenience  of  their  worshippers,  and  to  accommodate  their 
votaries,  who  were  numerous  as  the  stars  of  heaven." 

The  inscription  closes  with  the  following  imprecations  upon 
any  one  who  shall  injure  the  tablets  and  cylinders  placed  in  the 
temple  :  — 

"  Whoever  shall  abrade  or  injure  my  tablets  and  cylinders,  or 
shall  moisten  them  with  water,  or  scorch  them  with  fire,  or  expose 
them  to  the  air,  or  in  the  holy  place  of  God  shall  assign  them 
a  place  where  they  cannot  be  seen  or  understood,  or  shall  erase 
the  writing  and  inscribe  his  own  name,  or  shall  divide  the  sculp- 
tures ( ?)  and  break  them  off  my  tablets,  may  Anu  and  Vul,  the 
Great  Gods,  my  lords,  assign  his  name  to  perdition  !  May  they 
curse  him  with  an  irrevocable  curse  !  May  they  cause  his  sover- 
eignty to  perish  !  .  .  .  May  Vul  in  his  fury  tear  up  the  produce 
of  his  land  !  .  .  .  May  he  not  be  called  happy  for  a  single  day  ! 
May  his  name  and  his  race  perish  ! " 

Asshur-nazir-pal  (883-858  b.c).  —  We  pass  an  interval  of  more 
than  two  centuries,  during  which  Assyria  almost  "  drops  below  the 
historical  horizon,"  and  then  find  upon  the  throne  Asshur-nazir-pal, 

1  Assyrian  for  Hittites,  These  people  proved  as  formidable  enemies  of  the 
Assyrian  kings  as  they  had  been  of  the  early  Pharaohs.     See  above,  pp.  25,  27, 

2  Rawlinson's  Ancient  Monarchies,  Vol.  II.  p.  68. 


78  THE  ASSYRIAN  MONARCHY. 

under  whom  the  Assyrian  Empire  enjoyed  an  era  of  unusual  mag- 
nificence. This  king  made  several  expeditions  into  the  surround- 
ing countries,  punishing  cruelly,  by  crucifixion  and  burning,  all 
that  dared  to  resist  his  authority. 

But  while,  like  all  the  Assyrian  kings,  he  was  cruel  and  unrelent- 
ing in  war,  he  seemed  not  insensible  to  the  gentler  influences  of 
peace ;  for  he  was  a  generous  patron  of  sculpture  and  architecture. 
Many  of  the  cities  of  his  empire  were  adorned  by  him  with 
magnificent  palaces  and  temples.  Of  the  capital  Calah,  over- 
looking the  Tigris,  which  city  Asshur-nazir-pal  embellished  with 
his  most  splendid  edifices,  Rawlinson,  forming  his  picture 
from  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  ruins,  declares  that  "when 
the  setting  sun  lighted  up  the  view  with  the  gorgeous  hues 
seen  only  under  an  Eastern  sky,  it  must  have  seemed  to  the 
traveller  who  beheld  it  for  the  first  time  like  a  vision  from  fairy- 
land." 

Shalmaneser  II.  (858-823  b.c.).— Asshur-nazir-pal  was  followed 
by  Shalmaneser  II.,  who  reigned  thirty-five  years.  During  his 
rule  this  warlike  king  made  between  twenty  and  thirty  military 
expeditions  against  various  countries,  and  held  in  subjection 
almost  all  the  peoples  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  moun- 
tains of  Persia. 

Shalmaneser  II.  was  the  last  strong  king  of  what  is  known  as 
the  First  Empire.  After  his  death,  province  after  province  and 
city  after  city  revolted  against  the  feeble  sovereigns  that  held  the 
throne,  until  the  empire  was  virtually  dissolved. 

Tiglath-Pileser  II.  (745-727  b.c.).  — With  this  king,  who  was 
a  usurper,  begins  what  is  known  as  the  Second  Empire.  He  was 
a  man  of  great  energy  and  of  undoubted  military  talent.  Syria, 
Palestine,  and  Phoenicia  were  conquered,  or  brought  into  a  state 
of  vassalage ;  and  Babylonia,  which  at  this  time  was  broken  up 
into  a  great  number  of  petty  states,  was  overrun,  and  Tiglath-Pileser 
assumed  the  ancient  title  of  "  King  of  Accad  and  Shumir."  Thus 
the  Assyrian  power  was  once  more  extended  over  the  greater  part 
of  Southwestern  Asia. 


I 


SARGON.  79 

But  what  renders  the  reign  of  this  king  a  landmark  not  only  in 
Assyrian,  but,  we  may  almost  say,  in  universal  history,  is  the  fact 
that  he  was  not  a  mere  conqueror  like  his  predecessors,  but  a 
political  organizer  of  great  capacity. 

Hitherto  the  empires  that  had  arisen  in  Western  Asia  consisted 
simply  of  tributary  or  vassal  cities  and  states,  each  of  which,  having 
its  own  king,  was  ready  at  the  first  favorable  moment  to  revolt 
against  its  suzerain,  who,  like  a  mediaeval  feudal  king,  was  simply 
a  great  overlord,  "  a  king  of  kings."  Now,  Tiglath-Pileser  intro- 
duced, or  at  least  first  put  into  practice  in  a  large  way,  the  plan 
of  reducing  conquered  states  to  provinces,  —  that  is,  instead  of 
allowing  the  princes  that  he  conquered  to  rule  as  his  vassals,  he 
put  in  their  places  Assyrian  magistrates,  or  viceroys,  upon  whose 
loyalty  to  himself  he  could  depend. 

This  system  gave  a  more  compact  and  permanent  character 
to  his  conquests.  It  is  true  he  was  not  able  to  carry  out  his 
system  perfectly ;  but  in  realizing  the  plan  to  the  extent  that 
he  did,  he  laid  the  basis  of  the  power  and  glory  of  the 
great  kings  who  followed  him  upon  the  Assyrian  throne,  and 
made  the  later  Assyrian  Empire,  to  a  certain  degree,  the  proto- 
type of  the  succeeding  world-empires  of  Darius,  Alexander,  and 
Caesar. 

Sargon  (722-705  b.c).  —  Sargon  was  one  of  the  greatest  con- 
querors and  sovereigns  of  the  Second  Empire.  In  722  b.c.  he 
captured  Samaria,  the  siege  of  which  had  been  commenced  by 
his  predecessor  Shalmaneser  IV.,  and  carried  away  the  Ten  Tribes 
into  captivity  beyond  the  Tigris.  From  this  time  the  kingdom  of 
Israel  disappears  from  among  the  states  of  the  East.  The  larger 
part  of  the  captives  were  scattered  among  the  cities  of  Media, 
and  probably  became,  for  the  most  part,  merged  with  the  popula- 
tion of  that  province.  During  this  reign  the  Egyptians  and  their 
allies,  in  the  first  encounter  (the  battle  of  Raphia,  720  b.c.)  be- 
tween the  empires  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Nile  valley,  suffered 
a  severe  defeat,  and  the  ancient  kingdom  of  the  Pharaohs  became 
tributary  to  Assyria. 


80  THE  ASSYRIAN  MONARCHY. 

Sargon  was  a  famous  builder.  Near  the  foot  of  the  Persian 
hills  he  founded  a  large  city,  which  he  named  for  himself;  and 
there  he  erected  a  royal  residence,  described  in  the  inscriptions  as 
"  a  palace  of  incomparable  magnificence,"  the  site  of  which  is  now 
preserved  by  the  vast  mounds  of  Khorsabad. 

Sennacherib  (705-681  b.c).  —  Sennacherib,  the  son  of  Sargon, 
came  to  the  throne  705  B.C.  We  must  accord  to  him  the  first 
place  of  renown  among  all  the  great  names  of  the  Assyrian  Em- 
pire. His  name,  connected  as  it  is  with  the  narrative  of  Jerusa- 
lem's marvellous  deliverance  from  the  power  of  the  Assyrian  army, 
and  with  many  of  the  most  wonderful  discoveries  among  the 
ruined  palaces  of  Nineveh,  has  become  as  familiar  to  the  ear  as 
that  of  Nebuchadnezzar  in  the  story  of  Babylon. 

The  fulness  of  the  royal  inscriptions  of  this  reign  enables  us 
to  permit  Sennacherib,  like  Tiglath-Pileser  L,  to  tell  us  in  his  own 
words  of  his  great  works  and  military  expeditions.  Respecting 
the  decoration  of  Nineveh,  he  says  :  "  I  raised  again  all  the  edi- 
fices of  Nineveh,  my  royal  city ;  I  reconstructed  all  its  old  streets, 
and  widened  those  that  were  too  narrow.  I  have  made  the  whole 
town  a  city  shining  like  the  sun." 

Concerning  an  expedition  against  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah,  he 
says :  "  I  took  forty- six  of  his  strong  fenced  cities ;  and  of  the 
smaller  towns  which  were  scattered  about  I  took  and  plundered  a 
countless  number.  And  from  these  places  I  captured  and  carried 
■  off  as  spoil  200,150  people,  old  and  young,  male  and  female,  to- 
gether with  horses  and  mares,  asses  and  camels,  oxen  and  sheep, 
a  countless  multitude.  And  Hezekiah  himself  I  shut  up  in  Jeru- 
salem, his  capital  city,  like  a  bird  in  a  cage,  building  towers  round 
the  city  to -hem  him  in,  and  raising  banks  of  earth  against  the 
gates,  so  as  to  prevent  escape."  ^ 

While  Sennacherib  was  besieging  Jerusalem,  the  king  of  Egypt 

appeared  in  the  field  in  the  south  with  aid  for  Hezekiah.     This 

caused  Sennacherib  to  draw  off  his  forces  from  the  siege  to  meet 

the  new  enemy ;  but  near  the  frontiers  of  Egypt  the  Assyrian  host, 

1  Rawlinson's  Ancient  Monarchies,  Vol.  II.  p.  i6i. 


ESARHADDON  I.  81 

according  to  the  Hebrew  account,  was  smitten  by  "  the  angel  of 
the  Lord,"  ^  and  the  king  returned  with  a  shattered  army  and  with- 
out glory  to  his  capital,  Nineveh. 

Sennacherib  laid  a  heavy  hand  upon  Babylon,  which  at  this  time 
was  the  leading  city  of  Chaldaea.  That  city  having  revolted,  Sen- 
nacherib captured  the  place,  and,  as  his  inscription  declares,  de- 
stroyed it  "  root  and  branch,"  casting  the  rubbish  into  the  "  River 
of  Babylon." 

Sennacherib  employed  the  closing  years  of  his  reign  in  the  dig- 
ging of  canals  and  in  the  erection  of  a  splendid  palace  at  Nine- 
veh. He  was  finally  murdered  by  his  two  eldest  sons,  who  were 
led  to  the  act  through  jealousy  of  their  younger  brother  Esarhad- 
don,  the  Joseph  of  the  family,  apparently. 

Esarhaddon  I.  (680-668  e.g.).  —  The  first  work  of  Esarhaddon, 
who,  though  the  youngest  son  of  Sennacherib,  became  the  succes- 
sor of  his  father,  was  to  drive  the  parricides  out  of  the  country ; 
then  he  entered  upon  his  renowned  wars,  and  gave  himself  to  his 
numerous  architectural  works,  for  he  was  a  great  builder  as  well 
as  a  great  warrior. 

He  performed  the  feat,  probably  never  accomplished  by  any 
other  conqueror,  of  penetrating  Central  Arabia,  and  capturing  the 
cities  of  that  desert-guarded  region.  During  another  campaign  he 
led  his  army  up  the  Nile,  to  the  gates  of  Thebes. 

Esarhaddon  built  four  royal  residences,  erected  many  temples 
in  the  various  cities  of  his  empire,  and  restored  Babylon,  —  which 
his  father,  it  will  be  recalled,  had  razed  to  the  ground,  —  making 
it  again  a  great  city. 

Sickness  falling  upon  the  monarch,  he  made  his  son  Asshur- 
bani-pal  joint  ruler  with  himself,  and  died  shortly  after,  leaving  his 
renowned  son  as  the  sole  head  of  the  great  empire. 

Asshur-bani-pal  (668-626?  e.g.).  —  This  king,  the  Sardanapa- 
lus  of  the  Greeks,  is  distinguished  for  his  magnificent  patronage  of 

1  This  expression  is  a  Hebraism,  meaning  often  any  physical  cause  of 
destruction,  as  a  plague  or  storm.  In  the  present  case,  the  destroying  agency 
was  probably  a  pestilence. 


82 


THE  ASSYRIAN  MONARCHY. 


art  and  literature.  During  his  reign  Assyria  enjoyed  her  Augustan 
age.  Under  the  inspiration  of  his  example  and  the  encouragement 
of  his  favor,  a  great  literary  enthusiasm  sprang  up  at  Nineveh  ;  and 
within  the  walls  of  his  palace  in  that  city  was  collected  the  largest 
and  most  important  of  Assyrian  hbraries. 

But  Asshur-bani-pal  was  also  possessed  of  a  warlike  spirit.     He 
broke  to  pieces,  with  a  terrible  energy,  in  swift  campaigns,  the 


SIEGE   OF    A    CITY    SHOWING    USE    OF    BATTERING-RAM.      (From  Nimrud.) 


enemies  of  his  empire.  Susiana  especially  was  made  a  terrible 
example  of  his  vengeance  ;  its  cities  were  levelled,  and  the  whole 
country  was  laid  waste.  All  the  scenes  of  his  sieges  and  battles  he 
caused  to  be  sculptured  on  the  walls  of  his  palace  at  Nineveh. 
These  pictured  panels  are  now  in  the  British  Museum.  They  are 
a  perfect  Iliad  in  stone. 

Saracus,  or  Esarhaddon  II.  (?-6o6  b.c).  —  Saracus  was  the 
last  of  the  long  line  of  Assyrian  kings.  His  reign  was  filled  with 
misfortunes  for  himself  and  his  kingdom.  For  nearly  or  quite 
seven  centuries  the  Ninevite  kings  had  lorded  it  over  the  East. 
There  was  scarcely  a  state  in  all  Western  Asia  that  had  not,  during 
this  time,  felt  the  weight  of  their  conquering  arms ;  scarcely  a 
people  that  had  not  suffered  their  cruel  punishments,  or  tasted  the 
bitterness  of  their  servitude. 


SARA C us,    OR   ESARHADDON  II.  83 

But  now  swift  misfortunes  were  bearing  down  upon  the  oppressor 
from  every  quarter.  The  Scythian  hordes,  breaking  through  the 
mountain  gates  on  the  north,  spread  a  new  terror  throughout  the 
upper  Assyrian  provinces ;  from  the  mountain  defiles  on  the  east 
issued  the  armies  of  the  recent-grown  empire  of  the  Aryan  Medes, 
led  by  the  renowned  Cyaxares ;  from  the  southern  lowlands,  anx- 
ious to  aid  in  the  overthrow  of  the  hated  oppressor,  the  Baby- 
lonians, led  by  the  youthful  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  son  of  the  traitor 
viceroy  Nabopolassar,  joined,  it  appears,  the  Medes  as  allies,  and 
together  they  laid  close  siege  to  the  Assyrian  capital. 

The  operations  of  the  besiegers  seem  to  have  been  aided  by  an 
unusual  inundation  of  the  Tigris,  which  undermined  a  section  of 
the  city  walls,  and  caused  a  wide  breach  in  the  defences.  At  all 
events  the  place  was  taken,  and  dominion  passed  away  forever  from 
the  proud  capital^  (606  B.C.).  Two  hundred  years  later,  when 
Xenophon  with  his  Ten  Thousand  Greeks,  in  his  memorable  re- 
treat, passed  the  spot,  the  once  great  city  was  a  crumbling  mass 
of  ruins,  of  which  he  could  not  even  learn  the  name. 

1  Saracus,  in  his  despair,  is  said  to  have  erected  a  funeral  pyre  within  one 
of  the  courts  of  his  palace,  and,  mounting  the  pile  with  the  members  of  his 
family,  to  have  perished  with  them  in  the  flames;  but  this  is  doubtless  a  poeti- 
cal embellishment  of  the  story. 


84  INSTITUTIONS,   ETC.,    OF  THE  ASSYRIANS. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

INSTITUTIONS,   ARCHITECTURE,   AND   LITERATURE   OF 
THE   ASSYRIANS. 

Nature  of  the  Assyrian  Empire.  —  The  Assyrian  state  is  a 
good  type  of  all  the  great  empires  that  have  succeeded  one  an- 
other upon  the  soil  of  Asia.  It  was  simply  a  heterogeneous  mass 
of  peoples  and  races,  held  together  by  external  force,  and  united 
by  no  inner  bonds  of  religion  or  customs  or  language. 

Attempts,  indeed,  were  made  by  some  of  the  Assyrian  kings, 
notably  by  Tiglath-Pileser  II.  (see  p.  78),  to  consoHdate  the 
varied  elements  which  wide  conquests  had  brought  within  the  lim- 
its of  the  empire,  into  something  like  national  unity.  But  these 
efforts  did  not  proceed  from  a  desire  to  promote  the  v/elfare  of 
the  peoples  over  whom  they  ruled  ;  their  object  was  simply  to 
strengthen  the  power  of  the  dominant  state  and  to  rivet,  more 
securely,  the  chains  of  the  subject  nations.  The  sovereigns  en- 
deavored to  Assyrianize  the  remotest  provinces  by  the  wholesale 
transference  of  the  population  of  a  conquered  country  to  a  new 
region,  in  order  that,  with  the  old  ties  of  country  and  home  thus 
severed,  the  new  generation  might  the  more  easily  forget  past 
wrongs  and  old  traditions  and  customs,  and  become  blended  with 
the  peoples  about  them.  Thus,  the  Ten  Tribes  of  Israel  were 
carried  away  from  their  homes  by  Sargon  and  scattered  among  the 
Median  towns,  where  they  became  so  mingled  with  the  native 
population  of  the  country  as  to  be  inquired  after  even  to  this  day 
as  "the  lost  tribes." 

It  was  inevitable  that  a  kingdom  of  this  nature  should  be  ever 
threatening  dissolution  the  moment  the  organizing  genius  that  had 
consolidated  it  was  embarrassed  by  accident  or  removed  by  death. 


THE   RELIGION.  85 

Hence  the  constant  efforts  necessary  to  reconquer  revolted  prov- 
inces, and  to  refasten  the  chains  upon  states  that  were  constantly 
breaking  away  from  the  central  authority.  Hence,  also,  the 
disturbances  and  uprisings  that  accompanied  almost  every  dynastic 
change. 

The  Religion.  —  The  Assyrians  were  Semites,  and  as  such  they 
possessed  the  deep  religious  spirit  that  has  always  distinguished 
the  peoples  of  this  family.  In  this  respect  they  were  very  much 
like  the  Hebrews.  The  wars  which  the  Assyrian  monarchs  waged 
were  not  alone  wars  of  conquest,  but  were,  in  a  certain  sense,  cru- 
sades made  for  the  purpose  of  extending  the  worship  and  author- 
ity of  the  gods  of  Assyria.  They  have  been  likened  to  the  wars  of 
the  Hebrew  kings,  and  again  to  the  conquests  of  the  Saracens. 

As  with  the  wars,  so  was  it  with  the  architectural  works  of 
these  sovereigns.  Greater  attention,  indeed,  was  paid  to  the  pal- 
ace in  Assyria  than  in  Babylonia ;  yet  the  inscriptions,  as  well  as 
the  ruins,  of  the  upper  country  attest  that  the  erection  and  adorn- 
ment of  the  temples  of  the  gods  were  matters  of  anxious  and  con- 
stant care  on  the  part  of  the  Assyrian  monarchs.  Their  accounts 
of  the  construction  and  dedication  of  temples  for  their  gods  afford 
striking  parallels  to  the  Bible  account  of  the  building  of  the  temple 
at  Jerusalem  by  King  Solomon. 

Not  less  prominently  manifested  is  the  religious  spirit  of  these 
kings  in  what  we  may  call  their  sacred  hterature,  as  testifies  the 
following  prayer  of  Asshur-bani-pal,  offered  to  one  of  his  great 
gods  :  "  May  the  look  of  pity  that  shines  in  thine  eternal  face  dis- 
pel my  griefs.  May  I  never  feel  the  anger  and  wrath  of  the  God. 
May  my  omissions  and  my  sins  be  wiped  out.  May  I  find  recon- 
ciliation with  him,  for  I  am  the  servant  of  his  power,  who  is  the 
author  of  the  great  gods.  May  thy  powerful  face  come  to  my 
help  :  may  it  shine  like  heaven,  and  bless  me  with  happiness  and 
abundance  of  riches."  ^ 

As  to  the  Assyrian  pantheon  and  worship,  these  were  in  all  their 
essential  features  so  similar  to  those  of  the  later  Chaldsean  system, 

1  See  Lenormant's  Ancient  History  of  the  East,  Vol.  I.  p.  418. 


86 


INSTITUTIONS,   ETC.,    OF  THE  ASSYRIANS. 


already  described  (see  p.  71),  that  any  detailed  account  of  them 
here  is  unnecessary.  One  difference,  however,  in  the  two  systems 
should  be  noted.  The  place  occupied  by  II,  or  Ra,  as  the  head 
of  the  pantheon  of  Chaldaea  is  in  Assyria  given  to  the  national 
deity  Asshur,  whose  emblem  was  a  winged  circle  with  the  figure 
of  a  man  within,  the  whole  perhaps  symbolizing,  according  to 
Rawlinson,  eternity,  omnipresence,  and  wisdom. 

Cruelty  of  the  Assyrians. — The  Assyrians  have  been  called 
the  "  Romans  of  Asia."  They  were  a  proud,  martial,  cruel,  and 
unrelenting  race.  Although  possessing,  as  we  have  just  noticed, 
a  deep  and  genuine  religious  feeling,  still  the  Assyrian  monarchs 
often  displayed  in  their  treatment  of  prisoners  the  disposition  of 
savages.     In  common  with  most  Asiatics,  they  had  no  respect  for 


ASSYRIANS   FLAYING   THEIR   PRISONERS. 

the  body,  but  subjected  captives  to  the  most  terrible  mutilations. 
The  sculptured  marbles  taken  from  the  palaces  exhibit  the  cruel 
tortures  inflicted  upon  prisoners  :  kings  are  being  led  before  their 
conqueror  by  means  of  hooks  thrust  through  one  or  both  lips;^ 
other  prisoners  are  being  flayed  alive ;  the  eyes  of  some  are  being 
bored  out  with  the  point  of  a  spear ;  and  still  others  are  having 
their  tongues  torn  out. 

An  inscription  by  Asshur-nazir-pal,  found  in  one  of  the  palaces 
at  Nimrud,  runs  as  follows :  "  Their  men,  young  and  old,  I  took 

1  See  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  10-13. 


ROYAL  SPORTS. 


87 


prisoners.  Of  some  I  cut  off  the  feet  and  hands  ;  of  others  I  cut 
off  the  noses,  ears,  and  Ups ;  of  the  young  men's  ears  I  made  a 
heap ;  of  the  old  men's  heads  I  built  a  tower.  I  exposed  their 
heads  as  a  trophy  in  front  of  their  city.  The  male  children  and 
the  female  children  I  burned  in  the  flames." 

Royal  Sports. — The  Assyrian  king  gloried  in  being,  like  the 
great  Nimrod,  "a  mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord."  In  his  in- 
scriptions, the  wild  beasts  he  has  slain  are  as  carefully  enumerated 
as  the  cities  he  has  captured.^  The  monuments  are  covered 
with  sculptures  that  represent  the  king  engaged  in  the  favorite 
royal  sport.     We  see  him  slaying  lions,  bulls,  and  boars,  as  well 


LION    HUNT.       (From  Nineveh.) 

as  less  dangerous  animals  of  the  chase,  with  which  the  unculti- 
vated tracts  of  the  country  appear  to  have  abounded. 

Asshur-izer-pal  had  at  Nineveh  a  menagerie,  or  hunting-park, 
filled  with  various  animals,  many  of  which  were  sent  him  as  tribute 
by  vassal  princes.  During  a  single  hunting  expedition  into  the 
desert  regions  of  Mesopotamia,  this  monarch,  according  to  his 
own  inscriptions,  slew  three  hundred  and  sixty  lions,  two  hundred 
and  fifty-seven  wild  cattle,  and  thirty  buffaloes,  besides  capturing 
for  his  menagerie  an  immense  number  of  ostriches,  bears,  and 
hyenas." 

1  Lenormant's  Ancient  Hisioty  of  the  East,  Vol.  I.  p.  431. 

2  Rawlinson's  Ancient  Monarchies,  Vol.  I.  p.  91. 


88  INSTITUTIONS,   ETC.,    OF   THE  ASSYRIANS. 


The  Royal  Cities, — The  capital  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy, 
like  that  of  ahnost  every  other  empire  in  Asia,  was  of  a  migratory 
character.  There  are  scattered  along  the  course  of  the  Tigris 
the  ruins  of  three  royal  cities  —  Asshur,  Calah,  and  Nineveh,  or, 
as  called  at  the  present  time,  Kileh-Sherghat,  Nimrud,  and  Ko- 
yunjik.  Away  from  the  Tigris,  about  ten  miles  to  the  northeast  of 
Nineveh,  is  the  mound  of  Khorsabad,  which  marks  the  site  of 
the  royal  residence  of  Sargon. 

The  ruins  of  these  royal  cities  of  Assyria  are  very  unlike  those 
of  the  capital  cities  of  Egypt.  Enormous  grass-grown  mounds, 
enclosed  by  crumbled  ramparts,  alone  mark  the  sites  of  the  great 
cities  of  the  Assyrian  kings.  The  character  of  the  remains  arises 
from  the  nature  of  the  building  material.  City  walls,  palaces,  and 
temples  were  constructed  chiefly  of  sun-dried  bricks,  so  that  the 
generation  that  raised  them  had  scarcely  passed  away  before  they 
began  to  sink  down  into  heaps  of  rubbish.  The  rains  of  many 
centuries  have  beaten  down  and  deeply  furrowed  these  mounds, 
while  the  grass  has  crept  over  them  and  made  green  alike  the 
palaces  of  the  kings  and  the  temples  of  the  gods. 

The  Ruins  of  Nineveh.  —  Lying  upon  the  left  bank  of  the 
Upper  Tigris  is  a  large  quadrangular  enclosure  surrounded  by 
heavy  earthen  ramparts,  about  eight  miles  in  circuit.  This  is  the 
site  of  ancient  Nineveh,  the  immense  enclosing  ridges  being  the 
ruined  city  walls.  These  ramparts  are  still,  in  their  crumbled 
condition,  about  fifty  feet  high  (Xenophon  says  that  they  were  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  high  when  he  saw  them),  and  average 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  in  width.  The  lower  part  of  the  wall 
was  constructed  of  solid  stone  masonry ;  the  upper  portion,  of 
dried  brick.  This  upper  and  frailer  part,  crumbling  into  earth, 
has  completely  buried  the  stone  basement.  The  Turks  quarry  the 
stone  from  these  old  walls  for  their  modern  buildings.  The  bridge 
that  spans  the  Tigris  at  Mosul  (a  native  town  just  opposite  the 
ruins  of  Nineveh)  is  constructed  of  stone  dug  from  these  ancient 
ramparts. 

The  regularity  of  the  old  walls  is  broken  by  large  heaps  of  rub- 


^ 


y 
PALACE-MOUNDS  AND  PALACES.  89 

bish,  which  mark  the  position  of  the  city  gates  and  their  flanking 
towers.  In  one  of  these  mounds,  excavated  by  Layard,  were  found 
several  colossal  winged  bulls,  the  wardens  of  the  entrance.  The  stone 
pavement  was  discovered  worn  into  deep  ruts  by  the  chariot- wheels. 

But  the  most  interesting  feature  of  the  ruins  is  the  great  palace- 
mound,  called  by  the  natives  Koyunjik.  This  mound  covers  an 
area  of  one  hundred  acres,  and  is  from  seventy  to  ninety  feet  high. 
It  is  traversed  by  deep  ravines,  worn  in  its  mass  by  centuries  of 
storms.  Upon  this  great  platform  stood  several  of  the  most  splen- 
did palaces  of  the  Ninevite  kings. 

Palace-Mounds  and  Palaces.  —  In  order  to  give  a  certain  dig- 
nity to  the  royal  residence,  to  secure  the  fresh  breezes,  and  to 
render  them  more  easily  defended,  the  Assyrians,  as  well  as  the 
Babylonians  and  Persians,  lifted  their  palaces  upon  lofty  artificial 
terraces,  or  platforms.  These  eminences,  which  appear  like  natu- 
ral flat-topped  hills,  were  constructed  with  an  almost  incredible 
expenditure  of  human  labor.  Out  of  the  material  composing  the 
mound  of  Koyunjik  at  Nineveh  could  be  built  four  pyramids  as 
large  as  that  of  Cheops.  One  at  least  of  these  gigantic  mounds 
marks  the  site  of  each  of  the  royal  cities  already  mentioned. 

The  tops  of  these  platforms  are  loaded  with  the  debris  of  the 
Assyrian  palaces.  The  swiftness  with  which  the  mud-wall  edifices 
fell  into  dilapidation,  an  ambition  to  surpass  all  predecessors,  and 
a  superstitious  fear  in  regard  to  occupying  the  palace  of  a  deceased 
monarch  led  each  king,  upon  his  accession  to  the  throne,  to  com- 
mence the  erection  of  a  new  royal  residence.  Sometimes  an 
entirely  new  site  was  chosen ;  but  often  the  new  palace  was  erected 
alongside  the  old,  upon  the  same  platform. 

The  group  of  buildings  constituting  the  royal  residence  was 
often  of  enormous  extent ;  the  various  courts,  halls,  corridors,  and 
chambers  of  the  Palace  of  Sennacherib,  which  surmounted  the 
platform  at  Nineveh,  covered  an  area  of  over  ten  acres.  The  pal- 
aces were  usually  one-storied.^     The  walls,  constructed  chiefly  of 

1  The  many-storied  appearance  of  the  restored  palace  in  the  accompanying  cut, 
results,  in  the  main,  from  the  buildings  being  lifted  upon  a  succession  of  terraces. 


90 


INSTITUTIONS,   ETC.,    OF   THE  ASSYRIANS, 


PALACE-MOUNDS  AND   PALACES. 


91 


dried  brick,  were  immensely  thick  and  heavy.  The  rooms  and 
galleries  were  plastered  with  stucco,  or  panelled  with  precious 
woods,  or  lined  with  enamelled  bricks.  The  main  halls,  however, 
were  faced  with  slabs  of  alabaster,  covered  with  sculptures  and  in- 
scriptions, the  illustrated  narrative  of  the  wars  and  labors  of  the 
monarch.  There  were  two  miles  of  such  sculptured  panelling  at 
Koyunjik.  At  the  portals  of  the  palace,  to  guard  the  approach, 
were  stationed  the  colossal  human-headed  bulls. 

The  immense  courts  upon  which  the  chambers  opened  were  the 
most  important  feature  of  the  palace,  as  is  still  the   case   in  all 


SCULPTURES    FROM    A   GATEWAY   AT   KHORSABAD. 


Oriental  residences,  and  were  sumptuously  decorated  with  sym- 
bolic sculptures,  and  surrounded  with  carved  and  painted  bal- 
conies, supported  usually  upon  wood  columns  encased  in  bronze 
plates,  and  crowned  with  capitals  that  were  the  original  of  the  Gre- 
cian Ionic.  These  superb  courts  were  used  on  special  state  occa- 
sions, the  assembly  being  protected  from  the  sun  and  weather  by 
a  rich  awning,  as  the  Roman  emperors  in  later  times  shielded  the 
multitudes  in  the  amphitheatre. 

An  important  adjunct  of  the  palace  was  the  temple,  a  copy  of 
the  tower-temples  of  the  Chaldseans.     Its  position  is  marked  at 


92  INSTITUTIONS,    ETC.,    OF   THE  ASSYRIANS. 

present  by  a  lofty  conical  mound,  rising  amidst  and  overiooking 
the  j^alace  ruins. 

Assyrian  Explorations.  —  Upon  the  decay  of  the  Assyrian  pal- 
aces, the  material  forming  the  upper  part  of  the  thick  walls  com- 
pletely buried  and  protected  all  the  lower  portion  of  the  structure. 
In  this  way  their  sculptures  and  inscriptions  have  been  preserved 
through  so  many  centuries,  till  brought  to  light  by  the  recent 
excavations  of  French  and  English  antiquarians. 

In  1844  M.  Botta,  the  French  consul  at  Mosul,  excavated  the 
mound  of  Khorsabad,  and  astonished  the  world  with  most  wonder- 
ful specimens  of  Assyrian  art  from  the  Palace  of  Sargon.  The 
sculptured  and  lettered  slabs  were  removed  to  the  Museum  of  the 
Louvre,  in  Paris.  Some  years  later,  Layard  disentombed  the 
Palace  of  Sennacherib,  and  those  of  other  kings  at  Nineveh  and 
Calah,  and  enriched  the  British  Museum  with  the  treasures  of 
his  search.  These  disentombed  palaces  have  thrown  as  strong  a 
light  upon  the  arts  and  history  of  the  ancient  Assyrians  as  the 
excavated  cities  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  have  shed  upon 
the  arts  and  domestic  hfe  of  the  Romans. 

The  Royal  Library  at  Nineveh. — Within  the  palace  of  Asshur- 
bani-pal  at  Nineveh,  Layard  discovered  what  is  known  as  the 
Royal  Library.  There  were  two  chambers,  the  floors  of  which 
were  heaped  with  books,  like  the  Chaldsean  tablets  already  de- 
scribed. The  number  of  books  in  the  collection  has  been  esti- 
mated at  ten  thousand.  The  writing  upon  some  of  the  tablets  is 
so  minute  that  it  cannot  be  read  without  the  aid  of  a  magnifying- 
glass.^  We  learn  from  the  inscriptions  that  a  librarian  had  charge 
of  the  collection.  Catalogues  of  the  books  have  been  found, 
made  out  on  clay  tablets.     The  library  was  open  to  the  public, 

1  "  The  discovery  of  a  crystal  lens  on  the  site  of  Nineveh  suggests  that  some 
of  the  microscopic  characters  on  the  tablets  were  inscribed  with  artificial  aid, 
as  well  as  the  possibility  of  a  rude  kind  of  telescope  having  been  employed 
for  astronomical  observations.  At  all  events,  one  astronomical  record  states 
that  'Venus  rises,  and  in  its  orbit  duly  grows  in  size.' "  —  Sayce,  The  Ancient 
Empires  of  the  East y '^.  173. 


THE    TABLETS  AND    THEIR   CONTENTS.  93 

for  an  inscription  says,  ''  I  [Asshur-bani-pal]  wrote  upon  the 
tablets;  I  placed  them  in  my  palace  for  the  instruction  of  my 
people." 

Asshur-bani-pal,  as  we  have  already  learned,  was  the  Augustus 
of  Assyria.  It  was  under  his  patronage  and  direction  that  most 
of  the  books  were  prepared  and  placed  in  the  Ninevite  collection. 
The  greater  part  of  these  were  copies  of  older  Chaldgean  tablets  ; 
for  the  literature  of  the  Assyrians,  as  well  as  their  arts  and  sciences, 
was  borrowed  almost  in  a  body  from  the  Chaldaeans.  All  the  old 
libraries  of  the  low-country  were  ransacked,  and  copies  of  their 
tablets  made  for  the  Royal  Library  at  Nineveh.  Rare  treasures 
were  secured  from  the  libraries  founded  or  enlarged  by  Sargon  of 
Agade  (see  p.  60).  The  great  reUgious  and  astronomical  works 
which  he  had  compiled  were  copied  with  reverential  care ;  for  all 
this  early  Chaldaean  literature  was  at  this  time  not  only  sacred,  but 
classical.  In  the  case  especially  of  the  tablets  that  held  the  sacred 
psalms,  both  the  ancient  Accadian  text  and  the  Semitic  interlineal 
translation  (see  p.  6Z^  were  religiously  copied  by  the  Assyrian 
scribe,  although  the  old  Turanian  speech  of  the  original  inhabi- 
tants of  Accad  and  Shumir  had  now  been  a  dead  language  prob- 
ably for  more  than  a  thousand  years. 

In  this  way  was  preserved  the  most  valuable  portion  of  the 
early  Chaldaean  literature,  which  would  otherwise  have  been  lost 
to  the  world. 

The  Tablets  and  their  Contents.  — The  Assyrian  tablets,  as  has 
already  been  noted,  were  in  form  like  the  Chaldaean.  They  em- 
brace a  great  variety  of  subjects;  the  larger  part,  however,  are 
lexicons  and  treatises  on  grammar,  and  various  other  works  intended 
as  text-books  for  scholars.  Perhaps  the  most  curious  of  the  tablets 
yet  found  are  notes  issued  by  the  government,  and  made  redeem- 
able in  gold  and  silver  on  presentation  at  the  king's  treasury. 
Tablets  of  this  character  have  been  found  bearing  date  as  early  as 
625  B.C.  It  would  seem  from  this  that  the  Assyrians  had  very 
correct  notions  of  the  representative  character  of  paper  (tablet) 
money. 


94  INSTITUTIONS,   ETC.,    OF   THE  ASSYRIANS. 

Other  books  are  found  to  treat  of  laws,  of  chronology  and  history, 
and  of  the  natural  sciences.  In  natural  history  we  find  tablets 
exhibiting  classifications  into  families  and  genera  of  all  the  animals 
inhabiting  the  different  provinces  of  the  Assyrian  Empire,  —  a 
common  and  scientific  name  being  attached  to  each  species. 
'•  No  doubt,"  says  Lenormant,  "  the  great  divisions  of  this  classifi- 
cation are  those  of  a  very  rudimentary  science,  but  we  may  well 
be  astonished  to  find  that  the  Assyrians  had  already  invented  a 
scientific  nomenclature  similar  in  principle  to  that  of  Linnaeus." 

From  one  part  of  the  library,  which  seems  to  have  been  the 
archives  proper,  were  taken  copies  of  treaties,  reports  of  officers 
of  the  government,  deeds,  wills,  mortgages,  and  contracts.  One 
tablet,  known  as  "  the  Will  of  Sennacherib,"  conveys  to  certain 
priests  some  personal  property  to  be  held  in  trust  for  his  son 
Esarhaddon.     This  is  the  oldest  will  in  existence.^ 

Influence  of  Assyria  upon  Civilization.  —  The  recent  excava- 
tions among  the  Assyrian  palaces,  and  the  discovery  of  the  key  to 
the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  which  has  opened  to  us  the  treasures 
of  the  libraries  of  the  Euphrates  valley,  have  greatly  modified  our 
views  respecting  the  influence  of  Asiatic  art  and  culture  upon 
European  civilization,  and  have  given  a  sort  of  epic  unity  to  his- 
tory. As  many  of  the  elements  of  our  modern  civihzation  were 
received  as  an  inheritance  from  Greece  and  Rome,  so  in  turn,  we 
now  find,  was  their  culture  enriched  by  valuable  gifts  from  the 
older  civilizations  of  the  East.  As  the  Tiber  and  the  Ilissus  are 
classic  streams  to  us,  so  were  the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates  classic 
rivers  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Thence  these  younger  nations 
received  much  that  the  Oriental  peoples  had  invented  or  sought 

1  We  give  the  text  of  this  interesting  document :  "  I,  Sennacherib,  king  of 
muhitudes,  Icing  of  Assyria,  have  given  chains  of  gold,  stores  of  ivory,  a  cup 
of  gold,  crowns  and  chains  besides,  all  the  riches  of  which  there  are  heaps, 
crystal  and  another  precious  stone  and  bird's  stone;  one  and  a  half  manehs, 
two  and  a  half  cibi,  according  to  weight,  to  Esar-Haddon,  my  son;  ...  the 
treasure  of  the  Temple  of  Anuk  and  (Nebo)-Irik-Erba,  the  harpists  of 
Nebo." 


INFLUENCE    OF  ASSYRIA  '  UPON  CIVILIZATION.         95 

out  in  art,  science,  and  philosophy.  As  Birch,  the  Egyptologist, 
says,  "  From  the  East  originated  germs  of  thought  which  grew  up 
into  blossoms  amongst  other  races  long  after  the  parent  stem  had 
lain  a  sapless  trunk  in  the  distant  regions  of  the  Euphrates  and 
the  Nile." 

The  Greeks  received  the  germs  of  their  mimetic,  or  sculptural, 
art  from  the  Euphrates  by  the  way  of  Asia  Minor  or  through  the 
maritime  cities  of  Phoenicia.  "  Between  the  works  of  Ninevite 
artists  and  the  early  works  of  the  Greeks,"  says  Lenormant,  "  even 
to  the  T^ginetans,  we  may  observe  an  astonishing  connection  ;  the 
celebrated  primitive  bas-relief  at  Athens,  known  by  the  common 
name  of  the  '  Warrior  of  Marathon,'  seems  as  if  detached  from  the 
walls  of  Khorsabad  or  Koyunjik."  ^  But  the  genius  of  the  Greek 
artists  always  transformed  what  they  borrowed.  Beneath  their 
touch  "  the  hard  and  rigid  lines  of  Assyrian  sculpture,"  as  Layard 
says,  ''  were  converted  into  the  flowing  draperies  and  classic  forms 
of  the  highest  order  of  art." 

Fergusson  thus  sums  up  the  results  of  his  studies  among  the 
palaces  of  Nineveh  and  Persepolis :  "  Egypt  may,  indeed,  have 
been  the  schoolmistress  from  -whom  the  ancient  world  derived  half 
her  science  and  her  art;  but  the  nations  from  whom  we  are 
descended  were  born  in  Assyria,  and  out  of  her  they  brought  all 
their  sympathies,  all  their  innate  civilization."^  And  Rawlinson, 
after  acquainting  himself  with  the  arts  and  sciences  of  the  Euphrates 
valley,  and  the  contents  of  the  Assyrian  libraries,  declares  that  "it 
was  from  the  East  .  .  .  that  Greece  derived  her  architecture,  her 
sculpture,  her  science,  her  philosophy,  her  mathematical  knowl- 
edge, —  in  a  word,  her  intellectual  life. 


>>3 


1  Lenormant's  Ancient  History  of  the  East,  Vol.  I.  p.  465. 

2  Fergusson's  Palaces  of  Nineveh  and  Persepolis,  p.  4. 

3  Rawlinson's  Ancient  Monarchies,  Vol.  III.  p.  76. 


96  THE  BABYLONIAN  MONARCHY, 


CHAPTER   VII. 

THE  BABYLONIAN   MONARCHY. 

(625-538  B.C.) 

Babylonian  Affairs  from  1300  to  625  B.C.— During  the  six 
centuries  and  more  that  intervened  between  the  conquest  of  the 
old  Chaldjean  monarchy  by  the  Assyrian  king  Tiglathi-Nin  and 
the  successful  revolt  of  the  low  countries  under  Nabopolassar, 
the  Babylonian  peoples  bore  the  Assyrian  yoke  very  impatiently. 
Again  and  again  they  made  violent  efforts  to  throw  it  off;  and  in 
several  instances  they  succeeded,  and  for  a  time  enjoyed  home 
rulers.  But  for  the  most  part  the  whole  country  as  far  as  the 
"  Sea,"  as  the  Persian  Gulf  is  called  in  the  inscriptions,  was  a 
dependency  of  the  great  overshadowing  empire  of  the  north. 

Belonging  to  this  period,  however,  are  two  names  which  we 
should  fix  in  our  minds  before  we  proceed  to  speak  of  the  great 
kings  of  the  later  Babylonian  monarchy.  These  are  Nabonassar 
and  Merodach-Baladan.  The  former  reigned  in  Babylon  about 
one  hundred  years  before  the  overthrow  of  Nineveh  (from  747 
to  733  B.C.).  He  was  evidently  a  strong  and  self-reliant  man; 
for  under  him  Babylon  succeeded  in  freeing  herself  from  the 
Assyrian  yoke,  and  enjoyed  a  short-lived  independence.  Nabo- 
nassar destroyed  the  records  of  the  kings  that  had  preceded  him, 
probably  because  he  thought  they  reflected  no  glory  on  his  country. 
Consequently,  following  ages  were  obliged  to  reckon  dates  from 
his  reign,  which  was  called  the  "Era  of  Nabonassar." 

Merodach-Baladan  (721-709  B.C.)  is  brought  to  our  notice 
because  it  was  he  who,  when  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judaea,  was  sick, 
and  it  was  reported  in  Babylon  that,  as  a  sign  of  his  recovery,  the 
shadow  had  gone  back  several  degrees  on  the  dial  of  Ahaz,  sent 


NABOPOLASSAR.  91 

commissioners  to  Jerusalem,  ostensibly  to  congratulate  the  Hebrew 
monarch  on  his  recovery,  and  to  make  inquiry  respecting  the 
reported  astronomical  wonder,  a  matter  in  which  the  Chaldaean 
astrologers  would  naturally  be  interested.  From  what  followed,  it 
is  thought  that  the  embassy  was  really  a  political  one,  having  for 
its  object  the  forming  of  an  alliance,  embracing  Judah,  Egypt,  and 
Babylonia,  against  the  Assyrian  king. 

Nabopolassar  (625-604  e.g.).  —  Nabopolassar  was  the  first 
king  of  what  is  properly  called  the  Babylonian  monarchy.  When 
troubles  and  misfortunes  began  to  thicken  about  the  last  Assyrian 
king,  Saracus,  he  intrusted  to  the  care  of  Nabopolassar,  as  his 
viceroy,  the  towns  and  provinces  of  the  South.  The  chance  now 
presented  of  obtaining  a  crown  proved  too  great  a  temptation 
for  the  satrap's  fidelity  to  his  master.  He  revolted  and  became 
independent  (625  B.C.).  Later,  he  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
the  Median  king,  Cyaxares,  against  his  former  sovereign  (see  p. 
83).  This  aUiance  was  cemented  by  the  betrothal  of  Amytis,  the 
young  and  beautiful  daughter  of  Cyaxares,  to  Nebuchadnezzar, 
son  of  Nabopolassar.  Through  the  overthrow  of  Nineveh  and  the 
break-up  of  the  Assyrian  Empire,  the  new  Babylonian  kingdom 
received  large  accessions  of  territory. 

Nabopolassar  in  his  old  age  intrusted  the  conduct  of  important 
expeditions  to  his  son  Nebuchadnezzar,  whose  relations  to  his 
royal  sire,  with  his  brilliant  victories  over  his  father's  enemies, 
remind  us  of  the  "  Black  Prince  "  and  Edward  HI.  of  England. 

Nebuchadnezzar  (604-5  6 1  b.c.)  .  —  Nebuchadnezzar  was  far  away 
from  Babylon,  either  in  Southern  Palestine  or  in  Egypt,  chastising 
Pharaoh-Necho  for  an  invasion  of  Syria,  when  intelligence  reached 
him  of  his  father's  death.  He  acted  with  that  quick  decision  and 
energy  which  characterized  all  his  subsequent  life.  Leaving  his 
army  to  be  led  back  to  Babylonia  by  the  usual  military  route  up 
through  Syria  and  around  the  northern  end  of  the  desert,  he  him- 
self,  with  a  few  attendants,  pushed  directly  across  the  desert,  and 
in  a  few  days  reached  the  capital,  before  any  plots  against  his 
succession  could  be  perfected. 


98  THE   BABYLONIAN  MONARCHY. 

With  the  energy  of  a  Napoleon,  Nebuchadnezzar  now  began  the 
conduct  of  his  brilliant  campaigns,  and  the  superintendence  of 
those  gigantic  works  that  rendered  Babylon  the  wonder  of  the 
Greeks,  and  have  caused  her  name  to  pass  into  all  histories  and 
literatures  as  the.  synonym  of  material  power  and  magnificence. 

Jerusalem,  having  repeatedly  revolted,  was  finally  taken  and 
sacked.  The  temple  was  stripped  of  its  sacred  vessels  of  silver 
and  gold,  which  were  carried  away  to  Babylon,  and  the  temple 
itself  with  the  adjoining  palace  was  given  to  the  flames;  the 
people,  save  a  miserable  remnant,  were  also  borne  away  into 
the  "Great  Captivity"  (586  B.C.).  Zedekiah,  under  whom  the 
last  revolt  took  place,  was  punished  by  having  his  eyes  put  out, 
after  having  seen  "  his  sons  slain  before  his  face." 

With  Jerusalem  subdued,  Nebuchadnezzar  pushed  with  all  his 
forces  the  siege  of  the  Phoenician  city  of  Tyre,  whose  investment 
had  been  commenced  several  years  before.  In  striking  language 
the  prophet  Ezekiel  describes  the  length  and  hardness  of  the 
siege  :  "  Every  head  was  made  bald,  and  every  shoulder  was 
peeled."^  After  a  siege  of  thirteen  years,  the  city  seems  to  h?.ve 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Babylonian  king,  and  his  authority 
was  now  undisputed  from  the  Zagros  Mountains  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

The  numerous  captives  of  his  many  wars,  embracing  peoples  of 
almost  every  nation  in  Western  Asia,  enabled  Nebuchadnezzar  to 
rival  even  the  Egyptian  Pharaohs  in  the  execution  of  enormous 
works  requiring  an  immense  expenditure  of  human  labor.  The 
works  which  we  may  with  very  great  certainty  ascribe  to  this 
prince  are  the  following :  the  repair  of  the  Great  Walls  of  Baby- 
lon ;  the  Great  Palace  in  the  royal  quarter  of  the  city ;  the  cele- 
brated Hanging  Gardens;  vast  quays  along  the  Euphrates,  to 
confine  it  in  its  course  through  the  capital;  and  gigantic  reser- 
voirs, canals,  and  various  engineering  works,  embracing  a  vast 
system  of  irrigation  that  reached  every  part  of  Babylonia. 

In  addition  to  all  these  works,  the  indefatigable  monarch  seems 

1  Ch.  xxix.  18. 


SUCCESSORS   OF  NEBUCHADNEZZAR.  99 

to  have  either  rebuilt  or  repaired  almost  every  city  and  temple 
throughout  the  entire  country.  There  are  said  to  be  at  least  a 
hundred  sites  in  the  tract  immediately  about  Babylon  which  give 
evidence,  by  inscribed  bricks  bearing  his  legend,  of  the  marvel- 
lous activity  and  energy  of  this  monarch. 

In  the  midst  of  all  these  gigantic  undertakings,  surrounded  by 
a  brilliant  court  of  councillors  and  flatterers,  the  reason  of  the 
king  was  suddenly  and  mysteriously  clouded.^  After  a  period  the 
cloud  passed  away,  "  the  glory  of  his  kingdom,  his  honor,  and 
brightness  returned  unto  him."  But  it  was  the  splendor  of  the 
evening ;  for  the  old  monarch  soon  after  died  at  the  age  of  eighty, 
worn  out  by  the  toils  and  cares  of  a  reign  of  forty-three  years,  the 
longest,  most  memorable,  and  instructive  in  the  annals  of  the 
Babylonian  or  Assyrian  kings. 

Successors  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (561-555  e.g.). — The  reigns  of 
Evil-Merodach  (son  of  Nebuchadnezzar),  Neriglissar,  and  Labos- 
soracus  (Laborosoarchod)  were  all  short  and  uneventful.  The 
first  and  last  both  met  with  violent  deaths.  With  Labossoracus 
ended  the  dynasty  of  Nabopolassar. 

The  Fall  of  Babylon.  —  In  555  e.g.,  Nabonadius  (=Naboni- 
dos),  one  of  the  nobles  that  had  conspired  against  the  life  of  the 
last  sovereign,  was  placed  upon  the  throne.  He  seems  to  have 
associated  with  himself  in  the  government  his  son  Belshazzar,  who 
shared  with  his  father  the  duties  and  honors  of  royalty,  apparently 
on  terms  of  equal  co-sovereignty. 

To  the  east  of  the  valley  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  beyond 
the  ranges  of  the  Zagros,  there  had  been  growing  up  an  Aryan 
kingdom,  the  Medo-Persian,  which,  at  the  time  now  reached  by 
us,  had  excited  by  its  aggressive  spirit  the  alarm  of  all  the  nations 

1  "  Nebuchadnezzar  fell  a  victim  to  that  mental  aberration  which  has  often 
proved  the  penalty  of  despotism,  but  in  the  strange  and  degrading  iorm  to 
which  physicians  have  given  the  name  of  lycanthropy;  in  which  the  patient, 
fancying  himself  a  beast,  rejects  clothing  and  ordinary  food,  and  even  (as  in 
this  case)  the  shelter  of  a  roof,  disuses  articulate  speech,  and  sometimes  per- 
sists in  going  on  all-fours."  —  Smith,  Ancient  History  of  ike  East,  p.  357. 


100  THE   BABYLONIAN  MONARCHY. 

of  Western  Asia.  For  purposes  of  mutual  defence,  the  king  ot 
Babylon,  and  Croesus,  the  well-known  monarch  of  Lydia,  a  state 
of  Asia  Minor,  formed  an  alliance  against  Cyrus,  the  strong  and 
ambitious  sovereign  of  the  Medes  and  Persians.  This  league 
awakened  the  resentment  of  Cyrus,  and  after  punishing  Croesus 
and- depriving  him  of  his  kingdom  (see  p.  130),  he  collected  his 
forces  to  chastise  the  Babylonian  king. 

Anticipating  the  attack,  Nabonadius  had  strengthened  the 
defences  of  Babylon,  and  stationed  around  it  supporting  armies. 
But  he  was  able  to  avert  the  fatal  blow  for  only  a  few  years. 
Risking  a  battle  in  the  open  field,  his  army  was  defeated,  and  the 
gates  of  the  capital  were  thrown  open  to  the  Persians  (538  b.c.).^ 

1  The  device  of  turning  the  Euphrates,  which  Herodotus  makes  an  incident 
of  the  siege,  was  not  resorted  to  by  Cyrus;  but  it  seems  that  a  little  later  (in 
521-519  B.C.),  the  city,  having  revolted,  was  actually  taken  in  this  way  by  the 
Persian  king  Darius.  Herodotus  confused  the  two  events.  See  Sayce,  The 
Ancient  Empires  of  the  East,  p.  145. 

The  account  that  has  usually  been  given  of  the  fall  of  the  great  city,  as 
gathered  from  the  Greek  writer  Herodotus  and  from  the  Bible,  is  in  substance 
as  follows :  At  the  dead  of  night,  when  the  young  king  (Belshazzar,  who  is 
the  only  king  noticed  by  the  tradition)  and  all  his  court  were  giving  them- 
selves up  to  song  and  revelry,  attendant  upon  the  celebration  of  a  great 
Babylonian  festival,  Cyrus,  having  previously  dug  with  great  labor  immense 
channels,  turned  the  course  of  the  Euphrates,  which  ran  directly  through  the 
city  enclosure,  and  then  led  his  troops  along  the  river  bed  till  within  the 
line  of  the  ramparts.  Upon  mounting  the  river  steps,  the  soldiers  found,  as 
they  had  hoped,  the  gates  unguarded,  and  in  a  few  moments  were  in  the  streets 
of  the  capital.  The  cry  of  alarm  ran  along  the  broad  avenues,*  and  at  last 
fell  upon  the  affrighted  ears  of  the  revellers  in  the  palace.  To  add  to  their 
dismay,  a  warning  hand,  it  is  said,  appeared  against  the  wall,  and  traced 
there  the  words  Mene,  mene,  tekel,  upharsin,  which  Daniel,  hastily  called, 
interpreted  to  the  king  as  meaning,  "  God  hath  numbered  thy  kingdom,  and 
finished  it.  Thou  art  weighed  in  the  balances,  and  art  found  wanting;  thy 
kingdom  is  divided,  and  given  to  the  Medes  and  Persians."  "  In  that  night 
was  Belshazzar,  the  king  of  the  Chaldteans,  slain."  f 

*  "  One  post  shall  run  to  meet  another,  and  one  messenger  to  meet  another,  to  show  the 
king  of  Babylon  that  his  city  is  taken  at  one  end."  — Jer.  li.  31. 
\  Dan.  V.  25-30. 


THE    TEMPLE    OF   THE   SEVEN  SPHERES.  101 

With  the  fall  of  Babylon,  the  seat  of  empire  in  the  East,  which 
now  for  two  or  three  thousand  years  had  been  in  the  valley  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates,  was  transferred  to  Persepolis,  the  Persian 
capital,  on  the  table-lands  of  Iran.  Thus  the  sceptre  of  dominion, 
borne  for  so  many  centuries  by  Semitic  princes,  was  given  into 
the  hands  of  the  Aryan  peoples,  who  were  destined,  from  this 
time  forward,  to  shape  the  course  of  events,  and  control  the  affairs 
of  civilization. 

The  Great  Edifices  of  Babylon. 

Ihe  deep  impression  which  Babylon  produced  upon  the  early 
Greek  travellers  was  made  chiefly  by  her  vast  architectural  works, 
—  her  temples,  palaces,  elevated  gardens,  and  great  walls.  The 
Hanging  Gardens  of  Nebuchadnezzar  and  the  walls  of  the  city 
were  reckoned  among  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  World. 

The  Temple  of  the  Seven  Spheres.  —  The  Babylonians,  like 
their  predecessors  the  Chaldseans,  accorded  to  the  sacred  edifice 
the  place  of  pre-eminence  among  their  architectural  works.  Upon 
the  temples  of  the  gods  were  lavished  the  wealth  of  the  kingdom. 

Sacred  architecture  in  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar  had  changed 
but  little  from  the  early  Chaldaean  models ;  only  the  temples  were 
now  larger  and  more  sumptuous  in  their  embellishments,  being 
made,  in  the  language  of  the  inscriptions,  "  to  shine  like  the  sun." 

The  celebrated  Temple  of  the  Seven  Spheres,  which  may  serve 
as  a  representative  of  the  later  Babylonian  temples,  was  located  at 
Borsippa,  a  suburb  of  Babylon  proper.  This  structure  was  a  vast 
pyramid,  270  feet  square  at  the  base,  and  rising  in  seven  succes- 
sive stages,  or  platforms,  to  a  height  of  156  feet.  Each  of  the 
stages  was  dedicated  to  one  of  the  seven  planets,  or  spheres. 
(The  sun  and  moon  were  reckoned  as  planets.)  Various  means 
were  adopted  to  give  the  platforms  the  conventional  tints  assigned 
to  the  different  planetary  bodies.  Thus  the  stages  sacred  to  the 
sun  and  moon  were  covered  respectively  with  plates  of  gold  and 
silver.^ 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  Vol.  XVIII.  Art.  I.  p.  6. 


102 


THE  BABYLONIAN  MONARCHY. 


The  chapel,  or  shrine  proper,  surmounted  the  uppermost  stage, 
and,  as  described  by  Herodotus,  must  have  been  sumptuous  in 
the  extreme.  The  tower,  thus  crowned  by  the  sanctuary  and 
zoned  with  all  the  planetary  colors,  with  the  gilded  stages  glis- 
tening, as  the  inscriptions  declare,  "  Uke  the  sun,"  presented  a 


BiRS-NIMRUD. 
(Ruin  of  the  great  Temple  of  the  Seven  Spheres,  near  Babylon.) 

splendid  and  imposing  appearance,   that  struck  every  beholder 
with  astonishment  and  awe. 

An  inscribed  cylinder  discovered  under  the  corner  of  one  of 
the  stages  (the  Babylonians  always  buried  records  beneath  the 
corners  of  their  public  edifices)  informs  us  that  this  temple  was  a 
restoration  by  Nebuchadnezzar  of  a  very  ancient  one,  which  in  his 
day  had  become,  from  ''  extreme  old  age,"  a  heap  of  rubbish.^ 

1  The  translation  of  the  inscription  runs  as  follows :  — 

"  And  by  his  favor,  also,  I  rebuilt  the  Temple  of  the  Seven  Spheres, 
which  is  the  Tower  of  Borsippa,  which  a  former  king  had  built,  and  had 
raised  it  to  the  height  of  forty-two  cubits,  but  had  not  completed  its  crown 
or  summit.     From  extreme  old  age  it  had  crumbled  down.     The  water-courses 


PALACES.  •  103 

This  edifice  in  its  decay  has  left  one  of  the  grandest  and  most 
impressive  ruins  in  all  the  East.  The  great  mass  of  the  crumbled 
stages  is  now  deeply  furrowed  with  ravines,  worn  by  the  rains  of 
twenty  centuries,  and  at  a  distance  over  the  level  desert  appears 
like  a  mountain  crowned  with  ruined  walls. 

Palaces.  —  The  Babylonian  palaces  were  so  like  those  of  the 
Assyrians,  already  d'escribed,  that  any  detailed  account  of  them 
here  is  unnecessary.  They  were  built  upon  platforms,  or  enormous 
substructions,  similar  to  those  we  have  seen  at  Nineveh.  One  of 
the  largest  of  these,  called  by  the  natives  El-Kasr,  which  supported 
the  Palace  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  covers  an  area  of  over  one  hun- 
dred acres.  Its  height  varies  from  sixty  to  ninety  feet.  Numerous 
excavations  have  been  made  in  this  mound  by  the  natives,  in  search 
of  bricks.  For  two  thousand  years  Babylon  has  been  an  inexhaust- 
ible brick  quarry.  Selucia  of  the  Greeks,  Ctesiphon  of  the  Par- 
thians,  Al-Maydan  of  the  Persians,  and  Cufa  and  Bagdad  of  the 
caliphs,  were  all  built  of  material  mined  from  these  rj^ins.  All  the 
modern  towns  and  caravansaries  of  the  neighboring  regions  are 
constructed  chiefly  of  brick  dug  out  of  the  ruined  edifices  of 
the  old  capital.  The  Arab  brick-merchants  of  the  country,  at  the 
present  day,  engage  as  a  regular  business  in  the  work  of  quarrying 
material  from  the  old  mounds  and  walls. 

which  once  drained  it  had  been  entirely  neglected.  From  their  own  weight 
its  bricks  had  fallen  down;  the  finer  slabs  which  cased  the  brick- work  were 
all  split  and  rent,  and  the  bricks  which  had  formed  its  mound  lay  scattered 
in  ruins, 

"Then  the  Great  Lord  Marduk  moved  my  heart  to  complete  this  temple; 
for  its  site  or  foundation  had  not  been  disturbed,  and  its  timibel,  or  sacred 
foundation-stone,  had  not  been  destroyed. 

"  In  the  month  Shalmi,  on  a  festival-day,  I  replaced  and  renewed  both  the 
bricks  of  its  mound  and  the  finer  slabs  of  its  .  .  .  Then  I  firmly  fixed  up  its 
mikitta,  and  I  placed  upon  its  new  crown  the  sculptured  inscriptions  of  my 
name.  For  its  summit  and  its  upper  story  I  made  .  .  .  like  the  old  ones.  I 
rebuilt  entirely  this  upper  portion,  and  I  made  its  crown  or  summit  as  it  had 
been  planned  in  former  days."  —  yournal  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  Vol.  XVIII. 
Art.  11. 


104  THE  BABYLONIAN  MONARCHY. 

The  Hanging  Gardens.  —  This  structure  excited  the  greatest 
admiration  of  the  ancient  Greek  visitors  to  Babylon.  It  was  con- 
structed by  Nebuchadnezzar,  to  please  his  wife  Amytis,  who,  tired 
of  the  monotony  of  the  Babylonian  plains,  longed  for  the  moun- 
tain scenery  of  her  native  Media.  The  edifice  was  probably  built 
somewhat  in  the  form  of  the  tower-temples,  stages  being  erected 
one  upon  another,  so  as  to  form  a  vast  pyramfdal  structure.  The 
successive  terraces,  which  overhung  the  city  at  a  great  height,  were 
covered  with  earth,  and  beautified  with  rare  plants  and  trees,  so 
as  to  simulate  the  appearance  of  a  mountain  rising  in  cultivated 
terraces  towards  the  sky.  The  gardens  were  irrigated  by  means 
of  curious  hydraulic  devices,  which  elevated  and  distributed  over 
the  terraces  water  drawn  from  the  Euphrates.^ 

The  Walls  of  Babylon.  —  Under  the  later  kings,  Babylon  was 
surrounded  with  walls  of  vast  circuit  and  of  great  strength.  Herod- 
otus affirms  that  these  defences  enclosed  an  area  just  fourteen 
miles  square.  An  inscription  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  recently  dis- 
covered, exactly  confirms  the  statement  of  the  historian. 

The  space  enclosed  by  the  ramparts  must  not  be  regarded  as  a 
city,  but  rather  as  a  fortified  district.  The  walls  possibly  embraced 
several  cities,  including  Babylon  proper  and  Borsippa.  We  may 
compare  these  ramparts  to  the  celebrated  Long  Walls  by  means 
of  which  Athens  was  united  with  her  seaports.  The  object  in 
enclosing  such  an  enormous  district  seems  to  have  been  to  bring 
sufficient  tillable  ground  within  the  defences  to  support  the  inhab- 
itants in  case 'of  a  protracted  siege.  No  certain  traces  of  these 
outer  ramparts  can  now  be  found ;  ^  but  close  alongside  the  Eu- 

1  Recent  excavations  (i  880-81)  made  by  Hormuzd  Rassam  amid  the  ruins 
of  Babylon  have  resulted  in  important  and  interesting  discoveries.  At  what  is 
called  the  Babel  mound,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  imposing  upon  the 
ancient  site,  the  explorer  has  brought  to  light  ruined  hydraulic  works  of  great 
extent,  reservoirs,  and  stone-lined  aqueducts  evidently  designed  for  bringing 
water  from  the  Euphrates.  These  discoveries  seem  to  point  out  the  great 
Babel  mound  as  the  remains  of  the  celebrated  Gardens  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

2  Herodotus  says  the  walls  were  eighty-five  feet  thick  and  three  hundred 
and  twenty-five  feet  high.     Strabo  gives  thirty-two  feet  for  the  thickness,  and 


THE    WALLS   OF  BABYLON,  105 

phrates,  where  lie  the  vast  heaps  of  which  we  have  spoken  (save 
the  Borsippa  ruin),  are  vast  crumbled  ramparts,  seven  miles  in 
circuit,  and  similar  in  every  respect  to  those  of  old  Nineveh.  This 
doubdess  was  the  royal  quarter  of  the  capital,  or  Babylon  proper. 

seventy-three  feet  for  the  height.  There  was  an  inner  wall,  very  inferior  to 
the  great  outer  wall,  and  enclosing  only  about  one-half  of  the  area  embraced 
by  the  latter.  (Neither  of  these  must  be  confused  with  the  wall  that  sur- 
rounded the  royal  city,  or  Babylon  proper.) 


106 


THE  BABYLONIAN  MONARCHY. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE    OF     CHALD/EAN,     ASSYRIAN,     AND 
BABYLONIAN   DYNASTIES   AND   KINGS. 


(Based  on  the 
Dynasties  or  Periods. 

From  4300?  to 
about  1300  B.C. 
Order  of  dynas- 
ties unsettled. 
Country,  much 
of  the  time,  di- 
vided into  many 
petty  states,  with 
priest-kings  rul- 
ing contempora- 
neously in  the 
great  cities  of 
Agade,  Erech, 
Ur,  Babylon,  etc. 


First    Empire. 
(1300-745  B.C.) 


Second  Empire. 
(745-606  B.C.) 


First  Period. 
(1300-625  B.C.) 


Second  Period. 
(625-538  B.C.) 


Authority  of  Sayce  and  Rawlinson.) 

Kings.  B.C. 

Accadians  (Turanians)  settled  in 

Chalda^a before  4000?  > 

4000? 


Arrival  of  the  Semites 

Sargon  I.  (Sarrukin),  Semitic  king 
of  Agad8 

Naram-Sin  (son),  according  to  in- 
scription of  Nabonadius      .     .     . 

Ur-ea  (Ur-Bagas),  formerly  read 
Urukh,  Accadian  king,  capital  at  Ur 

Kudur-Nakhunta,  Elamite  prince, 
conquers  Chaldaea 

Kudur  -  Lagamer  (Chedorlaomer;, 
contemporary  with  Abraham  .     . 

Chald^ea  conquered  by  Assyrian  king 
Tiglathi-Nin  (=  Tiglath-Adar)     . 

Tiglathi-Nin,  conqueror  of  Chaldsea 

about  I 300-1 280 

Tiglath-Pileser  I about  11 30-1  no 

***** 


3800? 

3750 
2800? 

2286   > 

about  2000 

about  1300 


Asshur-nazir-pal 

Shalmaneser  II 

*  *  *  * 

Tiglath-Pileser  II 

Shalmaneser  IV.  ...... 

Sargon 

Sennacherib , 

Esarhaddon  I 

Asshur-bani-pal  (Sardanapalus) 


883-858 
858-823 

745-727 

727-722 

722-705* 

705-681 

680-668 

668-626 

?-6o6 


Esarhaddon  II.  (Saracus)       .     .     . 
Babylon  ruled,  for  the  most  part,  by 

Assyrian  viceroys  .     .....  1300-747 

Re-establishes  her  independence  un- 
der Nabonassar 747 

Merodach-Baladan 721-709 

Assyrian  Sargon  reconquers  Babylon  709 
Successive  revolts  and  their  suppres- 
sion          .     .  709-626 

Babylon  becomes  independent   .     .  625  j 

Nabopolassar 625-604 

Nebuchadnezzar 604-561 

Evil-Merodach 561-559 

Neriglissar 559-55^ 

Labossoracus 55^-555 

Nabonadius 555-53^  ^ 

Belshazzar,  his  son  (shares  the  government  with 
his  father). 


IMPORTANCE    OF  HEBREW  HISTORY.  107 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

THE   HEBREW  NATION. 

Importance  of  Hebrew  History.  —  The  history  of  no  other 
people  in  so  eminent  a  degree  as  that  of  the  Hebrew  nation  illus- 
trates the  fact  —  a  fact  which  we  must  in  our  study  keep  steadily 
in  view  —  that  the  germ  of  all  that  is  best  in  our  modern  civiliza- 
tion is  to  be  sought  among  the  institutions  of  antiquity.  The 
nations  already  passed  in  review  enriched  the  world  by  their 
labors  and  discoveries  in  the  arts  and  sciences.  The  Hebrews  did 
nothing  in  these  matters.  Their  mission  was  a  grander  one  —  to 
teach  righteousness.  Of  all  the  elements  of  the  rich  legacy  be- 
queathed to  the  modern  by  the  ancient  world,  by  far  the  most 
important,  in  their  influence  upon  the  course  of  events,  were  those 
transmitted  to  us  by  the  ancient  Hebrews. 

The  Patriarchal  A^e.  —  Hebrew  story  begins  with  the  depart- 
ure of  Abraham  out  of  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  about  2000  B.C.  (see 

P-  7)- 

The  story  of  Abraham  and  his  nephew  Lot,  of  Isaac  and  his 

sons  Jacob  and  Esau,  and  of  the  twelve  sons  of  the  patriarch  Ja- 
cob, is  told  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  with  a  charm  and  simplicity 
that  have  made  all  these  names  the  familiar  possession  of  child- 
hood. 

During  all  the  Patriarchal  Age,  the  descendants  of  Abraham  in 
Palestine  felt  themselves  to  be  strangers  and  sojourners  in  a  coun- 
try not  their  own.  Their  life  was  the  simple  wandering  one  of  the 
Bedouins  of  to-day,  who  each  summer  come  up  from  the  Mes- 
opotamian  region,  and  dot  the  valleys  and  plains  of  this  same  land 
with  their  tents  and  herds.  In  the  times  of  the  Hebrew  patri- 
archs, this  region  seems  to  have  been  but  sparsely  settled,  and 
these  wanderers  from  beyond   the  Euphrates  were  permitted   to 


108  ■  THE  HEBREW  NATION. 

rove  over  the  couHtry  about  at  will.  Thus  moving  from  place  to 
place  in  search  of  pasturage  for  their  flocks,  they  pitched  their 
tents  on  almost  every  spot  in  Palestine. 

The  Hebrews  in  Egypt  (from  the  i8th  to  the  13th  century 
B.C.  ?) .  —  An  event  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  East  now  gave 
an  entirely  new  turn  to  Hebrew  history.  A  long  drought,  and 
consequent  failure  of  crops  and  pasturage  in  Palestine,  forced  the 
families  of  Israel  to  look  to  the  more  favored  valley  of  the  Nile  for 
sustenance  for  themselves  and  their  flocks.  The  way  for  their  kind 
reception  by  the  king  of  Egypt  had  been  providentially  prepared. 
Joseph,  having  been  sold  by  his  jealous  brothers  into  slavery,  had 
won,  through  the  generosity  of  events  and  his  personal  abflity,  the 
favor  of  the  Egyptian  monarch,  and  had  been  advanced  to  the 
position  of  prime-minister  of  the  empire.  Through  his  regard 
for  his  trusted  minister,  the  Pharaoh  admitted  the  Hebrews  to  an 
audience,  and  assigned  them  lands  for  their  families  and  flocks  in 
the  land  of  Goshen,  a  most  fertile  section  of  the  Delta  country, 
and  one  well  adapted  to  their  pastoral  habits.  Here  the  Hebrews 
increased  rapidly  in  numbers,  and  soon  became  an  important  ele- 
ment in  the  Egyptian  state. 

A  change  in  the  ruling  dynasty  led  to  an  entire  reversal  of  the 
policy  of  the  Egyptian  sovereigns  in  their  treatment  of  the  He- 
brews, as  well  as  of  the  other  Semitic  peoples  whom  migratory 
movements  had  brought  into  the  Delta  from  the  neighboring 
regions  of  Asia.  On  account  of  their  increasing  number  it  was 
feared  that  in  case  of  invasion  or  revolt  they  might  join  the 
enemies  of  the  Egyptians.  Such  an  apprehension  was  not  by  any 
means  groundless,  for  the  country  had  but  just  been  dehvered  from 
those  Asiatic  intruders  called  the  Shepherd  Kings.  For  this 
reason  a  severe  persecution  was  waged  against  them.  They 
were  treated  like  prisoners  of  war,  and  by  unfeeling  taskmasters 
forced  to  hard  labor  upon  the  various  edifices  of  the  Pharaohs. 
The  persecution  gradually  assumed  a  religious  character,  and  be- 
came more  bitter ;  for  the  pure  monotheism  of  the  Hebrews  and 
the  debased  animal-worship  of  the  Egyptians  were  in  direct  antag- 


THE  EXODUS.  109 

onism.  A  long  and  severe  contest  arose  between  Moses  and 
Aaron,  the  leaders  of  the  Hebrews,  and  the  priests  and  magicians 
of  the  Egyptians. 

The  contest  was  brought  to  an  abrupt  termination.  A  series  of 
plagues  and  calamities,  falling  with  terrible  swiftness  and  fatal  effect 
upon  the  country  and  its  people,  led  the  Pharaoh  to  yield  to  the 
demands  of  the  Hebrews  —  to  which  were  now  joined  the  entreaties 
of  his  own  afflicted  people  —  and  to  suffer  them  to  depart  out  of 
the  country.  Hastily  mustering  the  different  tribes,  Moses  led  the 
vast  multitude  —  there  were  600,000  fighting  men  —  towards  the 
eastern  frontier  of  Egypt. 

The  Exodus  (about  1300  b.c).  —  Although  the  Pharaoh,  while 
under  the  fear  produced  by  the  wonderful  and  calamitous  events 
of  the  preceding  months,  had  consented  to  the  departure  of  the 
Israelites,  still  no  sooner  did  he  see  himself  about  to  be  deprived 
of  this  vast  number  of  subjects  and  slaves  than  he  repented  of 
having  granted  the  permission,  and  determined  to  detain  them  by 
force. 

Gathering  a  large  army  of  foot  soldiers  and  chariots,  he  set  out 
in  hot  pursuit  of  the  fugitives,  and  overtook  them  just  as  they 
reached  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea,  near  its  head.  Here  his  army 
was  overwhelmed  in  the  treacherous  quicksands,  and  the  fleeing 
multitude  were  delivered  from  what  seemed  certain  destruction. 

From  this  experience  dates  the  birth  of  the  Hebrew  nation. 
The  great  deliverance  touched  the  hearts  of  all  with  a  common 
and  intense  enthusiasm.  It  colored  the  whole  subsequent  history 
of  Israel,  and  is  the  key  to  very  much  that  would  otherwise  be 
inexplicable  in  the  story  of  this  peculiar  people.  The  convictions 
that  were  born  out  of  that  wonderful  event  were  the  source,  and 
are  the  explanation,  of  much  of  the  resolution  and  religious  zeal 
exhibited  in  succeeding  passages  of  the  nation's  history. 

The  forty  years  following  this  event  were  consumed  by  the  He- 
brews in  weary  wanderings  up  and  down  the  Sinaitic  peninsula. 
During  this  time  the  generation  that  came  out  of  Egypt,  and  to 
whom  clung  all  the  instincts  of  their  life  of  slavery,  were  replaced 


no  THE   HEBREW  NATION. 

by  a  new  generation  inured  to  the  hardships  of  the  desert,  and  thus 
by  this  disciphne  prepared  for  the  conquest  of  the  land  of  Palestine, 
for  which  work  their  fathers  had  shown  themselves  unfitted  by 
shamefully  recoiling  from  the  attempt  when  Moses  wished  to  lead 
them  against  the  strongholds  of  the  tribes  that  held  the  southern 
frontier  of  Philistia.  Amidst  the  "  terrific  scenery  "  of  the  south- 
ern portion  of  the  peninsula,  they  received  the  law  which  formed 
the  basis  of  all  their  national  institutions. 

At  last,  with  the  long-intermitted  march  resumed,  Moses  led 
the  tribes  by  a  great  detour  to  the  eastern  frontier  of  Palestine, 
thus  avoiding  the  strongly  garrisoned  forts  and  cities  of  the  south, 
and  bringing  the  armies  of  Israel  upon  the  comparatively  unpro- 
tected flank  of  the  country.  From  the  mountains  of  Moab,  which 
overhang  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  the  great  leader  and  prophet 
of  Israel  was  privileged,  from  some  commanding  height,  to  cast 
his  eyes  over  the  land  promised  unto  his  fathers.  Here,  in  sight 
of  the  longed-for  country,  he  died  amidst  the  mountains  of  Moab  ; 
but  "no  man  knoweth  of  his  sepulchre  unto  this  day."     ,  ) 

Conquest  of  Canaan  and  Apportionment  of  the  Land.  — 
Joshua,  the  successor  of  Moses,  led  the  people  across  the  Jordan ; 
and,  after  the  capture  of  Jericho,  a  walled  city  situated  in  the  river 
plain  just  above  the  head  of  the  Dead  Sea,  proceeded  to  the  work 
of  subjugating  the  different  tribes  of  the  hill  country  of  Palestine. 
Two  campaigns,  one  conducted  towards  the  south  and  the  other 
towards  the  north,  placed  the  larger  part  of  the  land  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Hebrews. 

The  conquered  territory  was  now  apportioned  among  the  differ- 
ent tribes,  the  two  tribes  of  Gad  and  Reuben  and  half  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh  being  permitted  to  settle  upon  land  to  the  east  of  the 
Jordan,  the  inviting  nature  of  which  had  struck  them  while  march- 
ing through  that  region. 

Thus,  after  one  of  the  most  remarkable  migratory  movements 
of  which  any  annals  have  been  preserved,  the  tribes  of  Israel  were 
brought  again,  as  permanent  settlers,  to  the  land  over  which,  five 
hundred  years  before,  their  ancestors  had  roved,  with  their  flocks 
and  tents,  as  strangers  and  as  pilgrims. 


THE   JUDGES.  Ill 

The  Judges  (from  1300  to  1095  b.c.?).  —  A  long  period  of 
anarchy  and  dissension  followed  the  conquest  and  allotment  of 
the  land.  ''There  was  no  king  in  Israel :  every  man  did  that 
which  was  right  in  his  own  eyes."  'During  this  time  there  arose 
a  line  of  national  heroes,  such  as  Gideon,  Jephthah,  and  Sam- 
son, whose  deeds  of  valor  and  daring,  and  the  timely  deliverance 
they  wrought  for  the  tribes  of  Israel  from  their  foes,  caused  their 
names  to  be  handed  down  with  grateful  remembrance  to  following 
ages. 

These  popular  leaders  were  called  Judges  because  they  usually 
exercised  judicial  functions,  acting  as  arbiters  between  the  differ- 
ent tribes,  as  well  as  between  man  and  man. 

Prominent  among  the  Judges  was  the  heroine  Deborah,  who  was 
a  poet  and  prophet  as  well  as  judge.  This  wonderful  person 
brings  to  our  mind  Joan  of  Arc  in  French  history ;  and  the  par- 
allel will  aid  us  in  comprehending  the  character  and  mission  of 
the  Hebrew  heroine.  Her  influence  seems  to  have  been  almost 
unbounded.  The  overthrow  and  death  of  Sisera,  one  of  Israel's 
enemies,  is  celebrated  by  Deborah  in  a  wild,  exultant  song  that 
ranks  among  the  most  remarkable  of  the  martial  poems  of  the 
barbarous  age  of  any  people.^ 

Towards  the  close  of  the  dark,  confused,  and  transitional  period 
of  the  Judges  is  placed  Samson,  the  most  renowned,  in  some 
respects,  of  the  heroes  of  Israel.  With  his  feats  of  strength  and 
adventurous  exploits,  every  one  is  familiar.  They  are  narrated  in 
the  Book  of  Judges,  which  is  a  collection  of  the  fragmentary,  yet 
always  interesting,  traditions  of  this  early  and  heroic  period  of  the 
nation's  life.  The  last  of  the  Judges  was  Samuel,  whose  life  em- 
braces the  close  of  the  anarchical  age  and  the  beginning  of  the 
monarchy. 

Founding  of  the  Hebrew  Monarchy  (1095  b.c.  ?) .  —  During  the 
period  of  the  Judges,  the  tribes  of  Israel  were  united  by  no  cen- 
tral government.  Their  union  was  nothing  more  than  a  league, 
or  confederation,  which  has  been  compared  to  the  Saxon  Hep^ 

1  See  Judges  v. 


112  THE  HEBREW  NATION. 

tarchy  in  England.  But  the  common  dangers  to  which  they  were 
exposed  from  the  attacks  of  the  half-subdued  Canaanitish  tribes 
about  them,  and  the  example  of  the  great  kingdoms  of  Egypt  and 
Assyria,  led  the  people  to  begin  to  think  of  the  advantages  of  a 
closer  union  and  a  stronger  government.  Consequently  the  re- 
public, or  confederation,  was  changed  into  a  kingdom,  and  Saul, 
of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  a  man  chosen  chiefly  because  of  his 
commanding  stature  and  royal  aspect,  was  made  king  of  the  new 
monarchy  (about  1095  B.C.). 

The  king  was  successful  in  subduing  the  enemies  of  the  Hebrews, 
and  consolidated  the  tribes  and  settled  the  affairs  of  the  new  state. 
But  towards  the  close  of  his  reign,  his  reason  became  disturbed  : 
fits  of  gloom  and  despondency  passed  into  actual  insanity,  which 
clouded  the  closing  years  of  his  life.  At  last  he  and  his  three 
sons  fell  in  battle  with  the  Philistines  upon  Mount  Gilboa  (about 
1055  B.C.). 

The  Reign  of  David  (1055-1015  b.c.?).  —  Upon  the  death  of 
Saul,  David,  son  of  Jesse,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  who  had  been 
previously  anointed  and  encouraged  to  expect  the  crown  by  the 
prophet  Samuel,  assumed  the  royal  sceptre.  After  crushing  the 
attempt  made  by  the  surviving  son  of  Saul  (Ishbosheth)  to  secure 
the  throne  of  his  father,  and  reducing  to  allegiance  all  the  tribes, 
David  set  about  enlarging  and  strengthening  his  dominions. 

There  were  yet  many  Canaanitish  strongholds  in  the  land,  the 
defenders  of  which  the  Israelites  had  been  unable  to  dislodge. 
In  the  midst  of  the  district  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Judah  was  the 
strong  fortress  of  Jebus,  possessed  by  the  Jebusites.  David  suc- 
ceeded in  capturing  this  place  by  stratagem,  and,  under  the  name 
of  Jerusalem,  made  it  his  capital  city.  This  warlike  king  trans- 
formed the  pastoral  and  half-civilized  tribes  into  a  conquering 
people,  and,  in  imitation  of  the  monarchs  of  the  Nile  and  the 
Euphrates,  extended  the  limits  of  his  empire  in  every  direction, 
and  waged  wars  of  extermination  against  the  troublesome  tribes 
of  Moab  and  Edom. 

Poet  as  well  as  warrior,  David  enriched  the  literature  of  his  own 


THE   REIGN  OF  SOLOMON.  113 

nation  and  of  the  world  with  lyric  songs  that  breathe  such  a  spirit 
of  devotion  and  trust  that  they  have  been  ever  since  his  day  the 
source  of  comfort  and  inspiration  to  thousands.^  He  had  in  mind 
to  build  at  Jerusalem  a  magnificent  temple,  and  spent  the  latter 
years  of  his  life  in  collecting  material  for  this  purpose.  In  dying, 
he  left  the  crown  to  Solomon,  his  youngest  son,  his  eldest,  Absa- 
lom, having  been  slain  in  a  revolt  against  his  father,  and  the 
second,  Adonijah,  having  been  excluded  from  the  succession  for 
a  similar  crime. 

The  Reign  of  Solomon  (1015-975  b.c.?).  —  Solomon  did  not 
possess  his  father's  talent  for  mihtary  affairs,  but  was  a  liberal 
patron  of  architecture,  commerce,  and  learning.  He  erected, 
with  the  utmost  magnificence  of  adornment,  the  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem, planned  by  his  father  David.  King  Hiram  of  Tyre,  who 
was  a  close  friend  of  the  Hebrew  monarch,  aided  him  in  this  un- 
dertaking by  supplying  him  with  the  celebrated  cedar  of  Lebanon, 
and  with  Tyrian  architects,  the  most  skilled  workmen  at  that  time 
in  the  world.  The  dedication  ceremonies  upon  the  completion  of 
the  building  were  most  imposing  and  impressive.  Thenceforth 
this  temple  was  the  centre  of  the  Jewish  worship  and  of  the 
national  life. 

For  the  purpose  of  extending  his  commerce,  Solomon  built 
fleets  upon  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Red  Sea.  The  most  re- 
mote regions  of  Asia  and  Africa  were  visited  by  his  ships,  and 
their  rich  and  wonderful  products  made  to  contribute  to  the  wealth 
and  glory  of  his  kingdom.  To  facilitate  the  overland  trade  with 
the  valley  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  regions  beyond,  he  built  Tad- 
mor  (Palmyra),  a  sort  of  caravansary  in  the  midst  of  the  Syrian 
desert.  As  a  great  depot  of  the  trade  of  the  East,  this  desert  city 
soon  attained  importance,  and  in  later  times,  under  Zenobia,  be- 
came the  rival  of  Rome. 

Solomon  maintained  one  of  the  most  magnificent  courts  ever 

1  The  authorship  of  the  different  psalms  is  a  matter  of  debate,  yet  critics 
are  very  nearly  agreed  in  ascribing  the  composition  of  at  least  a  considera>^le 
number  of  them  to  David. 


114  THE  HEBREW  NATION. 

held  by  an  Oriental  sovereign.  When  the  Queen  of  Sheba,  attracted 
by  the  reports  of  his  glory,  came  from  Southern  Arabia  to  visit  the 
monarch,  she  exclaimed,  "The  half  was  not  told  me."  He  was 
the  wisest  king  of  the  East.  His  proverbs  are  famous  specimens 
of  sententious  wisdom.  He  was  versed,  too,  in  botany,  being 
acquainted  with  plants  and  trees  "  from  the  hyssop  upon  the  wall 
to  the  cedar  of  Lebanon." 

But,  wise  as  was  Solomon  in  his  words,  his  life  was  far  from  be- 
ing either  admirable  or  prudent.  In  conformity  with  Asiatic  cus- 
tom, he  had  many  wives  —  seven  hundred,  we  are  told  —  of  differ- 
ent nationalities  and  religions.  Through  their  persuasion  the  old 
monarch  himself  fell  into  idolatry,  which  turned  from  him  the 
affections  of  his  best  subjects,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  dissen- 
sions and  wars  that  followed  his  death. 

The  Division  of  the  Kingdom  (975  b.c.  ?) .  —  The  reign  of  Solo- 
mon was  brilliant,  yet  disastrous  in  the  end  to  the  Hebrew  mon- 
archy. In  order  to  carry  on  his  vast  undertakings,  he  had  laid 
most  oppressive  taxes  upon  his  people.  When  Rehoboam,  his 
son,  succeeded  to  his  father's  place,  the  people  entreated  him  to 
lighten  the  taxes  that  were  making  their  very  lives  a  burden.  In- 
fluenced by  young  and  unwise  counsellors,  he  replied  to  the  peti- 
tion with  haste  and  insolence  :  "  My  father,"  said  he,  "  chastised 
you  with  whips,  but  I  will  chastise  you  with  scorpions."  Immedi- 
ately all  the  tribes,  save  Judah  and  Benjamin,  rose  in  revolt,  and 
succeeded  in  setting  up,  to  the  north  of  Jerusalem,  a  rival  king- 
dom, with  Jeroboam  as  its  first  king.  This  northern  state,  with 
Samaria  as  its  capital,  became  known  as  the  Kingdom  of  Israel ; 
the  southern,  of  which  Jerusalem  remained  the  capital,  was  called 
the  Kingdom  of  Judah. 

Thus  was  torn  in  twain  the  empire  of  David  and  Solomon. 
United,  the  tribes  might  have  maintained  an  empire  capable  of 
offering  successful  resistance  to  the  encroachments  of  the  powerful 
and  ambitious  monarchs  about  them.  But  now  the  land  becomes 
an  easy  prey  to  the  spoilero  It  is  henceforth  the  pathway  of  the 
conquering  armies  of  the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates.     Between  the 


THE   KINGDOM   OF  ISRAEL.  115 

powerful  monarchies  of  these  regions,  as  between  an  upper  and 
nether  millstone,  the  Httle  kingdoms  are  destined,  one  after  the 
other,  to  be  ground  to  pieces. 

The  Kingdom  of  Israel  (975  ?-722  b.c).  —  The  kingdom  of  the 
Ten  Tribes  maintained  an  existence  for  about  two  hundred  and 
fifty  years.  Its  story  is  instructive  and  sad.  Many  passages  of  its 
history  are  recitals  of  the  struggles  between  the  pure  worship  of 
Jehovah  and  the  idolatrous  service  of  the  deities  introduced  from 
the  surrounding  nations.  During  the  reign  of  Ahab  and  his  infa- 
mous queen  Jezebel,  the  quarrel  between  the  two  religious  parties 
issued  in  bitter  persecutions  and  massacres.  The  cause  of  the 
religion  of  Jehovah,  as  the  tribes  of  Israel  had  received  it  from  the 
patriarch  Abraham  and  the  lawgiver  Moses,  was  boldly  espoused 
and  upheld  by  a  line  of  the  most  remarkable  teachers  and  proph- 
ets produced  by  the  Hebrew  race,  among  whom  Elijah  and  Elisha 
stand  pre-eminent.  With  undaunted  courage  and  unswerving  loy- 
alty to  the  divine  monitions,  they  condemned  the  idolatry  and  cor- 
ruption of  the  times,  and  labored  to  lead  the  people  back  to  the 
earlier  and  purer  faith  of  their  fathers. 

But  all  was  in  vain;  and  at  last  the  thoroughly  corrupt  and 
enfeebled  nation  falls  into  the  power  of  the  Assyrian  monarch. 
This  happened  722  B.C.,  when  Samaria,  as  we  have  already  nar- 
rated in  the  history  of  Assyria,  was  captured  by  Sargon,  king  of 
Nineveh,  and  the  Ten  Tribes  were  carried- away  into  captivity 
beyond  the  Euphrates  (see  p.  79).  From  this  time  they  are  quite 
lost  to  history. 

The  country,  left  nearly  vacant  by  this  wholesale  deportation  of 
its  inhabitants,  was  filled  with  other  subjects  or  captives  of  the 
Assyrian  king.  The  descendants  of  these,  mingled  with  the  few 
Jews  of  the  poorer  class  that  were  still  left  in  the  country,  formed 
the  Samaritans  of  the  time  of  Christ. 

The  Kingdom  of  Judah  (975  ?-586  b.c.)  .  — This  little  kingdom, 
torn  by  internal  religious  dissensions,  as  was  its  rival  kingdom  of 
the  north,  and  often  on  the  very  verge  of  ruin  from  Egyptian  or 
Assyrian  armies,  maintained  an  independent  existence  for  about 


116  THE  HEBREW  NATION. 

four  centuries.  During  this  period,  a  line  of  eighteen  kings,  of 
most  diverse  characters,  sat  upon  the  throne.  Upon  the  exten- 
sion of  the  power  of  Babylon  to  the  west,  Jerusalem  was  forced  to 
acknowledge  the  suzerainty  of  the  Babylonian  kings. 

The  kingdom  at  last  shared  the  fate  of  its  northern  rival. 
Nebuchadnezzar,  the  powerful  king  of  Babylon,  in  revenge  for 
an  uprising  of  the  Jews,  besieged  and  captured  Jerusalem,  and 
carried  away  a  large  part  of  the  people,  and  their  king  Zedekiah, 
into  captivity  at  Babylon  (see  p.  98).  This  event  occurred  one 
hundred  and  thirty-six  years  after  the  leading  of  the  Ten  Tribes 
into  captivity  by  the  Assyrians.  It  virtually  ended  the  separate 
and  political  life  of  the  Hebrew  race  (586  B.C.).  Henceforth 
Judah  constituted  simply  a  province  of  the  empires  —  Babylonian, 
Persian,  Macedonian,  and  Roman  —  which  successively  held  sway 
over  the  regions  of  Western  Asia,  with,  however,  just  one  flicker 
of  national  life  under  the  Maccabees,  during  a  part  of  the  two 
centuries  just  preceding  the  birth  of  Christ. 

It  only  remains  to  mention  those  succeeding  events  which  be- 
long rather  to  the  story  of  the  Jews  as  a  people  than  as  a  nation. 
Upon  the  capture  of  Babylon  by  the  Persian  king  Cyrus  (see  p. 
100),  that  monarch,  who  was  kindly  disposed  towards  the  Jews  that 
he  there  found  captives,  permitted  them  to  return  to  Jerusalem  and 
restore  the  temple.  Jerusalem  thus  became  again  the  centre  of 
the  old  Hebrew  worship,  and,  although  shorn  of  national  glory, 
continued  to  be  the  sacred  centre  of  the  ancient  faith  till  the 
second  generation  after  Christ.  Then,  in  chastisement  for  re- 
peated revolts,  the  city  was  laid  in  ruins  by  the  Romans ;  while 
vast  numbers  of  the  inhabitants  —  some  authorities  say  over  one 
million  —  were  slain,  or  perished  by  famine,  and  the  remnant  were 
driven  into  exile  to  different  lands. 

Thus,  by  a  series  of  unparalleled  calamities  and  persecutions, 
were  the  descendants  of  Abraham  "  sifted  among  all  nations  "  ; 
but  to  this  day  they  cling  with  a  strange  devotion  and  loyalty  to 
the  simple  faith  of  their  fathers. 


HEBREW  RELIGION  AND  LITERATURE.  117 


Hebrew  Religion  and  Literature. 

The  ancient  Hebrews  made  little  or  no  contribution  to  science. 
They  produced  no  new  order  of  architecture.  In  sculpture  they 
did  nothing  :  their  religion  forbade  their  making  "  graven  images." 
Their  mission,  as  we  have  already  said,  was  to  teach  religion. 
Here  they  have  been  the  instructors  of  the  world.  Their  litera- 
ture is  a  religious  one ;  for  literature  with  them  was  simply  a 
medium  for  the  conveyance  of  religious  instruction  and  the  awak- 
ening of  devotional  feehng. 

The  Hebrew  religion,  a  pure  monotheism,  the  teachings  of  a 
long  line  of  holy  men  —  patriarchs,  lawgivers,  prophets,  and  priests 
—  stretching  from  Abraham  down  to  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  is  con- 
tained in  the  sacred  books  of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures.  In 
these  ancient  writings,  patriarchal  traditions,  histories,  dramas, 
poems,  prophecies,  and  personal  narratives  blend  in  a  wonderful 
mosaic,  which  pictures  with  vivid  and  grand  effect  the  various 
migrations,  the  deliverances,  the  calamities  —  all  the  events  and 
religious  experiences  in  the  checkered  life  of  the  Chosen  People. 

Out  of  this  old  exclusive,  formal  Hebrew  religion,  transformed 
and  spiritualized  by  the  Great  Teacher  who  spake  as  never  man 
spake,  grew  the  Christian  faith.  Out  of  the  Old  Testament  arose 
the  New,  which  we  should  think  of  as  a  part  of  Hebrew  Hterature  ; 
for  although  written  in  the  Greek  language,  and  long  after  the 
close  of  the  political  life  of  the  Jewish  nation,  still  it  is  essentially 
Hebrew  in  thought  and  doctrine,  and  the  supplement  and  crown 
of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 

Besides  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  called  collectively,  by  way  of 
pre-eminence,  the  Bible  (the  Book),  it  remains  to  mention  espe- 
cially the  Apocrypha,  embracing  a  number  of  books  that  were 
composed  after  the  decline  of  the  prophetic  spirit,  and  which  show 
traces,  as  indeed  do  several  of  the  later  books  of  the  Bible,  of  the 
influence  of  Persian  and  Greek  thought.  These  books  are  gener- 
ally regarded  by  the  Jews  and    Protestants   as    uncanonical,  but 


118  THE  HEBREW  NATION, 

in  the  main  are  considered  by  the  Roman  CathoUcs  as  possessing 
equal  authority  with  the  other  books  of  the  Bible. 

Neither  must  we  fail  to  mention  the  Talmud,  a  collection  of 
Hebrew  customs  and  traditions,  with  the  comments  thereupon  of 
the  rabbis,  a  work  held  by  most  Jews  next  in  sacredness  to  the 
Holy  Book ;  the  writings  of  Philo,  an  illustrious  rabbi  who  lived 
at  Alexandria  just  before  the  birth  of  Christ ;  and  the  Antiquities 
of  the  'yews  and  the  Jewish  Wars  by  the  historian  Josephus,  who 
lived  and  wrote  about  the  time  of  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  by 
Titus ;  that  is,  during  the  latter  part  of  the  first  century  after 
Christ. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 


119 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE   OF   HEBREW   KINGS. 

The  chronology  of  the  period  of  the  Judges  is  very  uncertain.  The  era 
covers  something  like  three  centuries,  embraced  between  the  death  of  Joshua 
and  the  establishment  of  the  Monarchy,  about  1095  B.C.  Some  uncertainty 
also  attaches  to  the  chronology  of  the  monarchy.  The  dates  given  below  of 
the  reigns  of  the  kings,  both  of  the  united  and  the  divided  kingdom,  save  a 
few  that  have  been  checked  by  the  readings  of  the  monuments,  must  be  re- 
garded as  only  approximately  correct. 


Kings  of  the  United  Monarchy. 

B.C. 

Saul    about  1095-1055 

David "       1055-1015 

Solomon "       1015-975 


Division  of  Monarchy,  about  975  b.c. 


Kings  of  Israel.  b.c. 

Jeroboam    ....    about  975-954 

Nadab 954-953 

Baasha   953-93° 

Elah 930-929 

Zimri 929 

Omri 929-918 

Ahab 918-897 

Ahaziah 897-896 

Jehoram 896-884 

Jehu 884-856 

Jehoahaz     856-839 

Joash 839-823 

Jeroboam  II 823-772 

Zachariah 772 

Shallum 772 

Menahem 772-762 

Pekahiah 762-760 

Pekah 760-730 

Hoshea 730-722 

Sargon  captures  Samaria  .  722 


Kings  of  Judah. 
Rehoboam  ....    about 

Abijam 

Asa 

Jehoshaphat 

Jehoram 

Ahaziah 

Athaliah 

Joash 

Amaziah 

Azariah 

Jotham 

Ahaz 

Hezekiah 

Manasseh 

Anion 

Josiah 

Jehoahaz      

Jehoiakim 

Jehoiachin 

Zedekiah  


975-958 
958-956 
956-916 
916-892 
892-885 
885-884 
884-878 
878-838 
838-809 
809-757 
757-742 
742-726 
726-697 
697-642 
642-640 
640-609 
609 
609-598 

598-597 
597-586 


// 


120  THE  PHCENICIANS. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

THE   PHCENICIANS. 

The  Country  and  its  Products.  —  Ancient  Phoenicia  embraced 
a  Httle  strip  of  broken  sea-coast  lying  between  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  ranges  of  Mount  Lebanon.  One  of  the  most  noted  pro- 
ductions of  the  country  was  the  fine  fir  timber  cut  from  the  forests 
that  crowned  the  lofty  ranges  of  the  Lebanon  Mountains.  The 
"  cedar  of  Lebanon  "  holds  a  prominent  place  both  in  the  history 
and  the  poetry  of  the  East. 

Another  celebrated  product  of  the  country  was  the  Tyrian  purple, 
which  was  obtained  from  several  varieties  of  the  murex,  a  species 
of  shell-fish,  secured  at  first  along  the  Phoenician  coast,  but  later 
sought  in  distant  waters,  especially  in  the  Grecian  seas. 

The  People.  — The  Phoenicians  were  a  Semitic  people,  and  of 
close  kin  to  most  of  the  so-called  Canaanitish  tribes.  In  very 
remote  times  the  ancestors  of  all  these  peoples  dwelt  in  the  regions 
bordering  upon  the  Persian  Gulf.  From  those  seats  they  migrated 
westward,  and  came  into  Palestine  some  time  before  the  arrival  of 
Abraham  from  the  same  region ;  for  we  are  told  that  when  that 
patriarch  led  his  flocks  into  Palestine,  "  the  Canaanite  was  then  in 
possession  of  the  land." 

The  larger  part  of  the  migratory  bands  appear  to  have  settled 
in  the  country  which  afterwards  became  known  as  the  Promised 
Land  ;  but  some  of  the  tribes  pressed  on  to  the  sea-coast,  and  took 
possession  of  the  region  called  by  the  Greeks  Phoenicia.  Still 
other  clans  of  the  same  race  pushed  southward  into  the  Delta  of 
the  Nile,  and  there  doubtless  helped  to  form  the  basis  of  the 
power  of  the  Shepherd  Kings,  of  whom  we  have  given  an  account 
in  connection  with  the  history  of  the  Egyptians  (see  p.  22). 


TYRE  AND   SI  DON.  121 

While  the  Hyksos  were  extending  their  authority  over  the  old 
civilization  of  the  Nile,  the  kindred  tribes  that  had  settled  on  the 
tract  of  sea-coast  overlooked  by  Mount  Lebanon  were  establishing 
fishing-stations,  and  laying  the  foundation  of  the  first  and  foremost 
maritime  power  of  the  early  world. 

Tyre  and  Sidon.  —  The  various  Phoenician  cities  never  coa- 
lesced to  form  a  true  nation.  They  simply  constituted  a  sort  of 
league,  or  confederacy,  the  petty  states  of  which  generally  acknowl- 
edged the  suzerainty  of  Tyre  or  Sidon,  the  two  chief  cities.  The 
latter  at  first  held  the  place  of  supremacy  in  the  confederation,  until 
that  city  was  overthrown  by  the  Philistines,  about  1050  B.C.  Upon 
that  event.  Tyre,  a  little  to  the  south  of  Sidon,  built  partly  upon 
the  mainland  and  partly  upon  a  "  rock  in  the  midst  of  the  waves," 
assumed  the  position  of  leadership  among  the  Phoenician  com- 
munities. 

For  more  than  seven  centuries  Tyre  controlled,  almost  without 
dispute  on  the  part  of  Sidon,  the  affairs  of  Phoenicia ;  and  during 
this  time  the  maritime  enterprise  and  energy  of  her  merchants 
spread  the  fame  of  the  little  island-capital  throughout  the  world. 
She  was  queen  and  mistress  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  kings  of 
Tyre  had  but  little  of  the  ambition  for  territorial  aggrandizement 
that  characterized  the  monarchs  of  their  times.  So  long  as  they 
controlled  the  commerce  of  the  seas  they  were  content.  When 
Solomon  offered  King  Hiram  twenty  cities  and  towns  for  aid  ren- 
dered in  building  the  temple,  the  Tyrian  monarch  chose  instead 
oil,  wheat,  and  other  products  of  Palestine. 

During  all  the  last  centuries  of  her  existence,  Phoenicia  was,  for 
the  most  part,  tributary  to  one  or  another  of  the  great  monarchies 
about  her.  She  acknowledged  in  turn  the  suzerainty  of  the  Assy- 
rian, the  Egyptian,  the  Babylonian,  the  Persian,  and  the  Macedo- 
nian kings.  Alexander  the  Great,  after  a  most  memorable  siege, 
captured  the  city  of  Tyre  —  which  alone  of  all  the  Phoenician  cities 
closed  her  gates  against  the  conqueror  —  and  reduced  it  to  ruins 
(332  B.C.).  She  never  recovered  from  this  blow.  The  larger  part 
of  the  site  of  the  once  great  city  is  now  ''  bare  as  the  top  of  a  rock," 


122  THE  PHCENICIANS. 

a  place  where  the  few  fishermen  that  still  frequent  the  spot  spread 
their  nets  to  dry. 

Phoenician  Commerce ;  Sea-Routes.  —  When  we  catch  our  first 
glimpse  of  the  Mediterranean,  about  1500  B.C.,  it  is  dotted  with 
the  sails  of  Phoenician  navigators.  It  was  natural  that  the  people 
of  the  Phcenician  coast  should  have  been  led  to  a  seafaring  life. 
The  lofty  mountains  that  back  the  little  strip  of  shore  seemed  to 
shut  them  in  from  a  career  of  conquest  and  to  prohibit  an  exten- 
sion of  their  land  domains.  At  the  same  time,  the  Mediterranean 
in  front  invited  them  to  maritime  enterprise ;  while  the  forests  of 
Lebanon  in  the  rear  offered  timber  in  abundance  for  their  ships. 
The  Phoenicians,  indeed,  were  the  first  navigators  who  pushed  out 
boldly  from  the  shore  and  made  real  sea  voyages.  They  crossed 
the  Mediterranean  in  every  direction  with  their  ships,  distributing 
the  manufactures  of  Asia  among  the  different  peoples  of  Southern 
Europe,  that  were  now  just  rising  out  of  the  lowest  stages  of  cult- 
ure, and  from  those  regions  brought  back  articles  in  quest  among 
the  merchants  of  the  East. 

The  longest  voyages  were  made  to  procure  tin,  which  was  in 
great  demand  for  the  manufacture  of  articles  in  bronze.  The 
nearest  region  where  this  metal  was  found  was  the  Caucasus,  on 
the  eastern  shore  of  the  Euxine.  The  Phoenician  sailors  boldly 
threaded  the  ^'^gean  Archipelago,  passed  through  the  Hellespont, 
braved  the  unknown  terrors  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  from  the  land 
of  Colchis  brought  back  to  the  manufacturers  of  Asia  the  coveted 
article  —  more  precious  than  the  Golden  Fleece  of  the  Argo- 
nauts (see  p.  164). 

Towards  the  close  of  the  nth  century  B.C.,  the  jealousy  of  the 
Pelasgic  states  of  Greece  and  of  the  Archipelago,  that  were  now 
growing  into  maritime  power,  closed  the  ^gean  Sea  against  the 
Phoenician  navigators.  They  then  pushed  out  into  the, Western 
Mediterranean,  and  opened  the  tin-mines  of  the  Iberian  (Spanish) 
peninsula.  When  these  began  to  fail,  these  bold  sailors  passed 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  faced  the  dangers  of  the  Atlantic,  and 
brought  back  from  those  distant  seas  the  tin  gathered  in  the  mines 
of  Britain. 


PHCENICIAN  COLONIES.  123 

Phoenician  Colonies.  —  Along  the  different  routes  pursued  by 
their  ships,  and  upon  the  coasts  visited  by  them,  the  Phoenicians 
established  naval  stations  and  trading-posts.  Thus  the  islands 
and  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  became  studded  with  naval 
depots  and  establishments  that  in  time  grew  into  important  centres 
of  trade  and  civilization. 

The  stations  first  established  by  the  Phoenicians  were  simply 
factories  and  stopping-places  for  their  ships.  They  were  not  col- 
onies in  the  sense  that  they  were  the  new  seats  of  a  surplus  popu- 
lation. But  when  the  little  home-land,  growing  rich  and  populous 
through  its  extended  trade,  became  too  strait  for  its  inhabitants, 
then  a  true  colonizing  movement  began. ^  Phoenician  settlements 
were  planted  in  Cyprus,  in  Rhodes  and  other  islands  of  the  ^gean 
Sea,  and  even  in  Greece  itself.  The  shores  of  Sicily,  Sardinia, 
and  Corsica  were  fringed  with  Phoenician  colonies ;  while  the 
coast  of  North  Africa  was  dotted  with  such  great  cities  as  Utica, 
Hippo,  and  Carthage.  Colonies  were  even  planted  beyond  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules,  upon  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  The  Phoenician 
settlement  of  Gades,  upon  the  western  coast  of  Spain,  is  still  pre- 
served in  the  modern  Cadiz. 

Routes  of  Trade.  —  From  the  mother  city  Tyre,  and  from  all 
her  important  colonies  and  trading-posts,  radiated  long  routes  of 
land  travel,  by  which  articles  were  conveyed  from  the  interior  of 
the  continents  to  the  Mediterranean  seaboard.  Thus,  amber  was 
brought  from  the  Baltic,  through  the  forests  of  Germany,  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Padus  (Po),  in  Italy.  The  tin  of  the  British 
Isles  was,  at  first,  brought  across  Gaul  to  the  outlets  of  the  Rhone, 
and  there  loaded  upon  the  Phoenician  ships.     The  trade  with  India 

1  Some  think  that  this  movement  received  an  additional  impulse  from  the 
Hebrew  invasion  of  Palestine.  About  the  close  of  the  14th  century,  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  crossed  the  eastern  frontier  of  that  country,  and  almost  at  a  blow 
destroyed  thirty-five  of  the  Canaanitish  states.  The  inhabitants  were  either 
slaughtered  or  driven  back  towards  the  coast,  where  they  crowded  into  the 
cities  of  their  kinsmen,  the  Phoenicians.  This  influx  of  refugees  from  the  hill 
country  contributed,  it  is  supposed,  a  new  motive  to  the  colonizing  spirit. 


124  THE  FHCENICIANS. 

was  carried  on  by  way  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Red  Sea,  great 
caravans  bearing  the  burdens  from  the  ports  at  the  heads  of  these 
seas  across  the  Arabian  and  Syrian  deserts  to  the  warehouses  of 
Tyre.  Other  routes  led  from  Phoenicia  across  the  Mesopotamian 
plains  to  Armenia,  Assyria,  Babylonia,  Persia,  and  thence  on  into 
the  heart  of  Central  Asia. 

Arts  Disseminated  by  the  Phoenicians.  —  We  have  dwelt  at 
some  length  upon  the  maritime  and  land  routes  of  the  Phoenician 
traders,  because  of  the  light  which  the  facts  we  have  detailed  shed 
upon  the  distribution  of  certain  arts,  and  the  spread  of  civiHzation, 
among  the  early  peoples  of  the  Mediterranean  area.  We  can 
scarcely  overestimate  the  influence  of  Phoenician  culture  and  enter- 
prise upon  the  civilization  of  Europe.  "  Egypt  and  x\ssyria,"  says 
Lenormant,  "  were  the  birthplace  of  material  civilization ;  the  Ca- 
naanites  [Phoenicians]  were  its  missionaries."  Most  prominent  of 
the  arts  which  they  introduced  among  all  the  nations  with  whom 
they  traded  was  the  art  of  alphabetical  writing. 

Before  or  during  the  rule  of  the  Hyksos  in  Egypt,  the  Phoenician 
settlers  in  the  Delta  borrowed  from  the  Egypdans  twenty- two 
hieratic  characters,  which  they  passed  on  to  their  Asiatic  kins- 
men. These  characters  received  new  names,  and  became  the 
Phoenician  alphabet. 

Now,  almost  all  the  true  alphabets  in  use  among  different  peo- 
ples are  manifestly  derived  from  the  Phoenician.  Lenormant 
classifies  the  various  alphabets  of  the  world  into  five  great  groups  :  ^ 
the  Semitic,  employed  by  the  various  Semitic  nations  of  Western 
Asia ;  the  Gi'ceco- Italic,  used  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans ;  the 
Iberian,  employed  in  the  Spanish  Peninsula;  the  Northern,  em- 
bracing the  Runic  alphabets  in  use  among  the  early  Teutonic 
tribes;  and  the  Indo-Homerite,  including  various  alphabets  in 
use  among  nations  scattered  from  Arabia  to  India. 

These  groups  of  alphabets  correspond  to  the  five  great  routes 
of  maritime  and  land  travel  followed  by  the  Phoenician  traders. 
Wherever  they  went,  they  carried  letters  and  the  art  of  alpha- 

1  History  of  the  East,  Vol.  II. 


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126  THE  PHCENICIANS. 

betical  writing  as  "  one  of  their  exports."  The  characters  were 
modified  by  the  different  peoples  who  adopted  them  ;  yet,  among 
all  the  different  groups  enumerated,  it  is  easy  to  detect  a  family 
likeness,  and  to  recognize  in  the  Phoenician  alphabet  the  mother 
of  them  all. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  ancestors  of  the  nations  of  Northern 
Europe  were,  at  the  time  they  first  met  the  Phoenicians,  living  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Black  Sea.  There  they  received  the  alphabet, 
and  carried  it  with  them  in  their  westward  migration  into  Europe. 

The  characters  used  by  the  early  Teutons  are  known  as  runes. 
The  Romans  received  their  alphabet  from  the  Greeks,  and  the 
Teutons,  giving  up  their  runes  when  they  gave  up  paganism, 
adopted  the  creed  and  alphabet  of  the  Romans  together.  So  our 
(  alphabet  has  come  to  us  from  Egypt  through  the  Phoenicians  first, 
then  the  Greeks,  and  lastly  the  Romans. 

The  introduction  of  letters  among  the  different  nations,  vast  as 
was  the  benefit  which  the  gift  conferred  upon  peoples  just  begin- 
ning to  make  advances  in  civilization,  is  only  one  of  the  many 
advantages  which  resulted  to  the  early  civilization  of  Europe  from 
the  commercial  enterprise  of  the  Phoenicians.  It  is  probable  that 
they  first  introduced  among  the  semi-civilized  tribes  of  that  conti- 
nent the  use  of  bronze,  which  marks  an  epoch  in  their  growing 
culture.  Articles  of  Phoenician  workmanship  are  found  in  the 
earhest  tombs  of  the  Greeks,  Etruscans,  and  Romans;  and  in 
very  many  of  the  manufactures  of  these  peoples  may  be  traced 
the  influence  of  Phoenician  art. 

Great  Enterprises  aided  by  the  Phoenicians. — While  scatter- 
ing the  germs  of  civilization  and  culture  broadcast  over  the  entire 
Mediterranean  area,  the  enterprising  Phoenicians  were  also  lending 
aid  to  almost  every  great  undertaking  of  antiquity. 

King  Hiram  of  Tyre  furnished  Solomon  with  artisans  and 
skilled  workmen,  and  with  great  rafts  of  timber  from  Lebanon, 
for  building  the  splendid  temple  at  Jerusalem.  The  Phoenicians 
also  provided  timber  from  their  fine  forests  for  the  construction  of 
the  great  palaces  and  temples  of  the  Assyrians,  the  Babylonians, 


GREA  T  ENTERPRISES  AIDED  B  V  THE  PHCENICIANS.     Yll 

and  the  Egyptians.  They  built  for  the  Persian  king  Xerxes  the 
Hellespontine  bridges  over  which  he  marched  his  immense  army 
into  Greece.  They  furnished  contingents  of  ships  to  the  kings  of 
Nineveh  and  Babylon  for  naval  operations  both  upon  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Persian  and  Arabian  gulfs.  Their  fleets  served  as 
transports  and  convoys  to  the  expeditions  of  the  Persian  monarchs 
aiming  at  conquest  in  Asia  Minor  or  Europe.  They  formed,  too, 
the  naval  branch  of  the  armaments  of  the  Pharaohs  ;  for  the  Egyp- 
tians hated  the  sea,  and  never  had  a  native  fleet.  And  it  was 
Phoenician  saflors  that,  under  the  orders  of  Pharaoh-Necho,  cir- 
cumnavigated Africa  —  an  undertaking  which,  although  attended 
perhaps  with  less  advantages  to  the  world,  still  is  reckoned  quite 
as  remarkable,  considering  the  remote  age  in  which  it  was  accom- 
plished (604-601  B.C.),  as  the  circumnavigation  of  the  globe  by 
the  Portuguese  navigator  Magellan,  more  than  two  thousand  years 
later. 


128  LYDIA. 


CHAPTER    X. 

LYDIA. 

The  Country  and  the  People.  —  Lydia  was  a  country  in  the 
western  part  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  a  land  highly  favored  by  na- 
ture. It  embraced  two  rich  river  valleys,  —  the  plains  of  the  Her- 
mus  and  the  Cayster,  —  which  from  the  mountains  inland  sloped 
gently  to  the  island- dotted  ^gean.  The  Pactolus,  and  other  trib- 
utaries of  the  streams  we  have  named,  rolled  down  "golden  sands," 
while  the  mountains  were  rich  in  the  precious  metals.  The  coast 
region  did  not  at  first  belong  to  Lydia ;  it  was  held  by  the  Greeks, 
who  had  fringed  it  with  cities.  The  capital  of  the  country  was 
Sardis,  whose  citadel  was  set  on  a  lofty  and  precipitous  rock. 

The  Lydians  were  a  mixed  people,  formed,  it  is  thought,  by  the 
mingling,  in  prehistoric  times,  of  x\ryan  tribes  that  crossed  the 
^gean  from  Europe,  with  the  original  non-Aryan  population  of 
the  country.  The  Lydian  kings  were  always  anxious  to  be  re- 
garded as  Greeks,  and  they  made  many  rich  presents  to  the 
Grecian  shrines. 

Gyges  (about  687-653  b.c).  — The  first  historical  Lydian  king 
was  Gyges,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Mermnadae.  It  seems 
probable  that  the  state  which  he  and  his  successors  lifted  into 
prominence,  was  a  fragment  of  the  great  Hittite  empire,  which 
once  extended  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  shores  of  the  yEgean. 

Under  Gyges  Lydia  began  to  play  a  distinct  and  important  part 
in  history.  He  helped  Psammetichus  of  Egypt  to  throw  off  the 
Assyrian  yoke,  and  to  make  that  country  once  more  an  indepen- 
dent kingdom.  He  also  began  attacks  upon  the  Greek  cities  of 
the  coast,  which,  continued  by  his  successors,  resulted  in  bringing 
them  all  into  bondage  to  the  Lydian  crown.     He  was  slain  in  bat- 


^ 


ALYATTES  III.  129 

tie  with  the  Cimmerians,  a  nomadic  people,  believed  to  have  been 
of  Celtic  origin,  who  had  burst  upon  Asia  Minor  from  beyond  the 
Caucasus,  had  sacked  Sardis  (save  the  citadel),  and  were  spread- 
ing terror  through  the  whole  region,  in  some  such  way  as  their 
kinsmen,  the  Gauls,  two  or  three  centuries  later,  sacked  Rome, 
and  ravaged  Italy  from  end  to  end. 

Alyattes  III.  (about  603-554  b.c).  — The  ravages  of  the  Cim- 
merians checked  for  a  time  the  rising  fortunes  of  Lydia.  But 
King  Alyattes,  the  third  in  succession  from  Gyges,  drove  these 
barbarians  quite  or  entirely  out  of  Asia  Minor,  gaining  thereby  a 
wide  reputation  among  the  surrounding  states,  and  thus  laying  the 
foundation  of  a  great  Lydian  empire.  He  also  extended  the  fron- 
tiers of  Lydia  towards  the  sea,  by  capturing  the  important  Greek 
city  of  Smyrna. 

But  his  chief  war  was  with  the  Median  king,  Cyaxares,  the  con- 
queror, it  will  be  recalled,  of  the  Assyrian  capital  Nineveh.  The 
destruction  of  the  great  Assyrian  empire  had  resulted  in  the 
speedy  extension  of  the  western  frontier  of  the  new  Median  power 
to  the  river  Halys,  in  Asia  Minor.  The  ambitious  Cyaxares  soon 
found  a  pretext  for  passing  that  stream,  and,  with  the  Babylonian 
king  as  his  ally,  attacked  the  Lydians  and  their  confederates. 

For  six  years  the  struggle  was  carried  on  with  changing  fortunes, 
when  the  war  was  brought  to  a  happy  end  by  a  singular  circum- 
stance. In  the  midst  of  a  great  batUe,  the  sun  was  suddenly 
eclipsed,  which  portent  so  impressed  the  superstitious  combatants 
that  they  ceased  fighting,  laid  aside  their  animosities,  and  entered 
into  a  true  and  firm  alliance.  The  treaty  of  peace  was  not  only 
bound  by  most  solemn  covenants,  but  was  further  cemented  by  the 
marriage  of  the  daughter  of  the  Lydian  king  to  Astyages,  the  son 
of  the  Median  monarch  (probably  585  B.C.). 

The  peace  thus  strangely  brought  about  between  the  chief  Asi- 
atic powers,  lasted  for  the  lifetime  of  a  generation,  so  that  Western 
Asia,  which  for  centuries  had  hardly  for  a  moment  been  unharassed 
by  war,  enjoyed  a  sort  of  Saturnian  age.  Egypt  alone  during  this 
period  made  serious  trouble,  through  her  aggressive  policy  in  Asia, 
and  forced  Babylon  into  conflict  with  her  (see  p.  31). 


130  LYDIA. 

Croesus  (about  554-540  b.c.)- — The  long  peace  was  at  length 
broken  by  the  rise  of  a  new  power,  the  Persian,  which  destroyed 
successively  the  three  allied  kingdoms  of  Media,  Lydia,  and  Baby- 
lon, and  upon  their  ruins  established  the  first  great  world-empire. 
The  story  of  the  rise  of  this  empire  we  shall  tell  in  the  following 
chapter.  Here  we  will  simply  trace  to  its  lamentable  end  the 
Lydian  kingdom. 

The  last  and  most  renowned  of  the  Lydian  kings  was  Croesus, 
the  son  of  Alyattes.  Under  him  the  Lydian  empire  attained  its 
greatest  extension.  He  subjected  all  the  Greek  cities  of  the 
coast,  and  thus  gained  control  of  the  commerce  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean as  well  as  that  of  the  Black  Sea.  He  also  extended  his 
authority  over  all  the  states  of  Asia  Minor  west  of  the  Halys,  save 
Lycia.  The  tribute  he  collected  from  the  Greek  cities,  and  the 
revenues  he  derived  from  his  gold  mines,  rendered  him  the  richest 
monarch  of  his  tniies,  so  that  his  name  has  passed  into  the  prov- 
erb, "  Rich  as  Croesus."  He  made  extravagantly  magnificent  pres- 
ents of  vessels  of  gold  and  silver  to  the  Greek  temples.  No  other 
personage  in  all  antiquity  seems  to  have  so  impressed  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  Greeks,  and  they  accordingly  embellished  the  history  of 
his  reign  with  innumerable  stories  and  fables,  of  which  we  shall  in 
a  moment  have  an  illustration. 

The  marriage  which  was  intended  to  strengthen  the  Lydian  and 
Median  alliance  formed  on  the  occasion  of  the  eclipse,  made 
Croesus  and  Astyages,  the  present  Median  king,  brothers.  Now, 
just  at  this  time,  Cyrus,  leader  of  the  Persians,  had  overthrown 
Astyages,  and  set  up  a  new  kingdom  upon  the  ruins  of  the  Median 
power.  Croesus  determined  to  avenge  his  brother.  The  Delphian 
oracle,  to  which  he  sent  to  learn  the  issue  of  a  war  upon  Cyrus, 
told  him  that  he  "  would  destroy  a  great  kingdom."  Interpreting 
this  favorably,  he  sent  again  to  inquire  whether  the  empire  he 
should  estabhsh  would  prove  permanent,  and  received  this  oracle  : 
"  Flee  and  tarry  not  when  a  mule  ^  shall  be  king  of  the  Medes." 

iThe  allusion  is  to  the  (traditional)  mixed  Persian  and  Median  descent  of 
Cyrus. 


LYDIA    A    CONNECTING   LINK.  131 

Deeming  the  accession  of  a  mule  to  the  Persian  throne  altogether 
impossible,  he  inferred  the  oracle  to  mean  that  his  empire  should 
last  forever. 

Thus  encouraged  in  his  purpose,  Croesus  made  a  league  with 
Babylon,  Egypt,  and  the  Greek  city  of  Sparta,  and  prepared  to 
make  war  upon  Persia.  But  he  had  miscalculated  the  strength  and 
activity  of  his  enemy.  Cyrus  marched  across  the  Halys,  defeated 
the  Lydian  army  in  the  field,  and  after  a  short  siege  captured 
Sardis  ;  and  Lydia  became  a  province  of  the  new  Persian  empire. 

There  is  a  story  which  tells  how  Cyrus  had  caused  a  pyre  to  be 
erected  on  which  to  burn  Crcesus,  but  at  the  last  moment  was 
struck  by  hearing  the  unfortunate  monarch  repeatedly  call  the 
name  of  Solon.  Seeking  the  meaning  of  this,  he  was  told  that 
Croesus  in  his  prosperous  years  was  visited  by  the  Greek  sage 
Solon,  who,  in  answer  to  the  inquiry  of  Croesus  as  to  whether  he 
did  not  deem  him  a  happy  man,  replied,  "  Count  no  man  happy 
until  he  is  dead."  Cyrus  was  so  impressed  with  the  story,  that  he 
released  the  captive  king,  and  treated  him  with  the  greatest  kind- 
ness. 

This  story  is  a  pure  creation  of  the  Greek  imagination,  for 
Solon  was  not  a  contemporary  of  Croesus.  But  it  is  an  historical 
fact  that  Cyrus  dealt  generously  with  his  unfortunate  prisoner,  and 
that  Croesus  resided  a  long  time  at  the  Persian  court. 

This  war  between  Croesus  and  Cyrus  derives  a  special  impor- 
:ance  from  the  fact  that  it  brought  the  Persian  empire  into  con- 
tact with  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia,  and  thus  led  on  directly  to 
that  memorable  struggle  between  Greece  and  Persia  known  as  the 
Grseco- Persian  War.  — '  i 

Lydia  a  Connecting  Link  between  the  East  and  West. — 
"  Lydia  is  the  link,"  writes  Sayce,  '•'  that  binds  together  the  geog- 
raphy and  history  of  Asia  and  Europe."  The  Lydians,  as  well  as 
the  Phoenicians,  were  the  heirs  of  Egypt  and  Babylon ;  and  what 
they  received,  they  passed  on  to  Greece.  It  would  be  difficult  to 
say  whether,  of  all  the  primary  elements  of  civilization  which  the 
western  nations  received  from  the  East,  they  received  most  by 


132  L  YDIA. 

way  of  the  sea,  through  Phoenicia,  or  overland,  through  Asia 
Minor. 

The  hnk  that  united  the  art  and  culture  of  Egypt  and  Babylon 
with  that  of  Lydia,  was  the  great  Hittite  empire,  of  which  we 
have  already  spoken  in  connection  with  the  Pharaohs  of  the 
Eighteenth  Dynasty.^  The  dominion  of  the  Hittite  princes  then 
extended  over  all  the 'countries  between  the  Euphrates  and  the 
shores  of  the  yEgean,  and  throughout  these  regions  they  spread 
the  civilization  of  Egypt  and  Babylon,  from  which  countries, 
especially  from  the  latter,  the  Hittites  borrowed  their  culture. 
Thus  the  Hittite  capital  Carchemish,  upon  the  Euphrates,  was  the 
first  station  of  Babylonian  art  and  culture  in  its  westward  march ; 
Sardis,  in  Lydia,  was  its  second  station ;  and  the  Ionian  Greek 
cities  on  the  Lydian  coast  were  its  third  and  last  station  before  it 
passed  over  to  the  European  continent. 

It  is  an  indisputable  fact  that  Greek  art,  literature,  and  philoso- 
phy arose  in  the  Asiatic  Greek  cities.  Why  the  first  light  of  that 
wonderful  civilization  should  have  dawned  among  the  Greek 
communities  in  xA.sia  we  can  now  understand,  as  well  as  appreciate 
the  largeness  of  the  debt  which  Greek  culture  owed  to  that  of 
Egypt  and  Chaldaea.  Some  of  the  most  characteristic  forms  of 
early  Greek  art,  as  revealed  by  sculptures  exhumed  on  the  site  of 
the  most  ancient  Greek  cities,  came  from  Babylon  by  the  way 
of  Lydia ;  while  even  the  speculations  of  the  Ionian  sages  were 
tinged  by  a  philosophy  derived  from  the  same  source  through  the 
same  channel. 

1  See*pp.  25,  27. 


KINSHIP   OF   THE  MEDES  AND  PERSIANS.  133 


CHAPTER    XI. 

THE   PERSIAN   EMPIRE. 

(From  558  to  330  B.C.) 

Kinship  of  the  Medes  and  Persians.  —  We  have  aheady  spoken 
of  the  probable  early  home  of  the  Aryan  peoples,  north  of  the 
Hindu  Kush  Mountains.  It  was  in  very  remote  times,  that  some 
tribes,  separating  themselves  from  the  other  members  of  the  Aryan 
family,  crossed  the  mountain  ranges  to  the  south,  and  sought  new 
abodes  on  the  plateau  of  Iran.  They  drove  out  or  absorbed  a 
people  of  Turanian  race  whom  they  found  in  possession  of  the 
land.  The  tribes  that  settled  in  the  south  became  known  as  the 
Persians  ;  while  those  that  took  possession  of  the  mountain  regions 
of  the  northwest  were  called  Medes. 

The  Medes,  through  amalgamation  with  native  non- Aryan  tribes, 
became  quite  different  from  the  Persians ;  but  notwithstanding 
this  the  names  of  the  two  peoples  have  always  been  very  closely 
associated,  as  in  the  familiar  legend,  "  The  law  of  the  Medes  and 
Persians,  which  altereth  not." 

The  Medes  at  first  the  Leading  Race.  — Although  the  Persians 
were  destined  to  become  the  dominant  tribe  of  all  the  Iranian 
Aryans,  still  the  Medes  were  at  first  the  leading  people.  Cyaxares 
(625-585  B.C.)  was  their  first  prominent  leader  and  king.  We 
have  already  seen  how,  aided  by  the  Babylonians,  he  overthrew 
the  last  king  of  Nineveh,  and  burned  that  capital ;  and  how, 
having  extended  his  dominions  to  the  Halys,  in  Asia  Minor,  he 
came  into  collision  with  the  Lydian  king,  Alyattes,  warred  against 
him  for  six  years,  and  then  entered  into  a  lasting  alliance  with  him 
(see  p.  129). 

Cyaxares  was  followed   by  his  son  Astyages    (585-558  b.c), 


134 


THE  PERSIAN  EMPIRE. 


during  whose  reign  the  Persians,  whom  Cyaxares  had  brought  into 
at  least  partial  subjection  to  the  Median  crown,  revolted,  over- 
threw the  Median  power,  and  thenceforth  held  the  place  of  leader- 
ship and  authority. 

Eeign  of  Cyrus  the  Great  (558-529  b.c).  —  The  leader  of  the 
revolt  against  the  Medes  was  Cyrus,^  the  tributary  king  of  the 
Persians.  Through  his  energy  and  soldierly  genius,  he  soon  built 
up  an  empire  more  extended  than  any  over  which  the  sceptre  had 
yet  been  swayed  by  an  Oriental  monarch,  or  indeed,  so  far  as  we 


TOMB  OF  CYRUS  THE  GREAT. 


know,  by  any  ruler  before  his  time.  It  stretched  from  the  Indus 
to  the  farthest  limits  of  Asia  Minor,  and  from  the  Caspian  Sea 
to  the  Persian  Gulf,  thus  embracing  not  only  the  territories  of  the 


1  Myths  and  fables  have  gathered  thick  about  the  name  of  Cyrus.  Thus 
legend  makes  him  to  have  been  the  grandson  of  Astyages,  who,  on  account 
of  warning  dreams,  sought  the  child's  life;  but  the  child  was  rescued  and 
brought  up  by  a  herdsman,  and  in  due  time,  of  course,  fulfilled  the  prophetic 
visions  by  supplanting  his  grandfather.     Read  Herodotus  I.  107-130. 


CHARACTER    OF  CYRUS.  135 

Median  kingdom,  but  also  those  of  the  alUed  kingdoms  of  Lydia 
and  Babylonia,  the  subjugation  of  which  to  the  Persian  authority 
has  already  been  narrated  (see  pp.  99,  131). 

Tradition  says  that  Cyrus  lost  his  life  while  leading  an  expedi- 
tion against  some  Scythian  tribes  in  the  north.  He  was  buried 
at  Pasargadae,  the  old  Persian  capital,  and  there  his  tomb  stands 
to-day,  surrounded  by  the  ruins  of  the  magnificent  buildings  with 
which  he  adorned  that  city.^  The  following  cuneiform  inscription 
may  still  be  read  upon  a  pillar  near  the  sepulchre  :  "  I  am  Cyrus, 
the  king,  the  Akhaemenian." 

Character  of  Cyrus.  —  Cyrus,  notwithstanding  his  seeming  love 
for  war  and  conquest,  possessed  a  kindly  and  generous  disposition. 
Almost  universal  testimony  has  ascribed  to  him  the  purest  and 
most  beneficent  character  of  any  Eastern  monarch. 

He  was,  more  than  any  other  Oriental  king,  accessible  to  his 
subjects,  and  by  his  free  and  open  way  with  them  won  their 
undying  affection  and  loyalty.  They  were  fond  of  calling  him 
"  Father."  He  refused  to  treat  harshly  those  whom  the  fortunes 
of  war  threw  into  his  power ;  and  often  he  forgave  and  read- 
mitted to  favor  those  that  had  plotted  against  his  life  and  crown. 
Many  stories  are  told  by  the  ancient  writers  which  illustrate  the 
energy  of  his  actions,  the  alertness  of  his  mind,  and  the  good- 
ness of  his  heart. 

Reign  of  Cambyses  (529-522  b.c).  —  Cyrus  the  Great  left  two 
sons,  Cambyses  and  Smerdis  :  the  former,  as  the  oldest,  inherited 
the  sceptre,  and  the  title  of  king.  He  began  a  despotic  and  unfor- 
tunate reign  by  causing  his  brother,  whose  influence  he  feared,  to 
be  secretly  put  to  death. 

With  far  less  ability  than  his  father  for  their  execution,  Cambyses 
conceived  even  vaster  projects  of  conquest  and  dominion.  Asia 
had  hitherto  usually  afforded  a  sufficient  field  for  the  ambition  of 
Oriental  despots.     Cambyses  determined  to  add  the  country  of 

1  It  should,  perhaps,  be  said  that  Sayce  thinks  this  structure  cannot  be  the 
tomb  of  the  great  Cyrus;  see  his  Ancient  E7npi7'es  of  the  East,  p.  273.  On 
the  other  hand,  consult  Rawlinson's  Ancient  Monarchies,  Vol.  III.  p.  388. 


136  THE   PERSIAN  EMPIRE. 

Africa  to  the  vast  inheritance  received  from  his  father.  Upon 
some  sHght  pretext,  he  invaded  Egypt,  captured  Memphis,  and 
ascended  the  Nile  to  Thebes.  From  here  he  sent  an  army  of 
fifty  thousand  men  to  subdue  the  oasis  of  Ammon,  in  the  Libyan 
desert.  Of  the  vast  host  not  a  man  returned  from  the  expedition. 
It  is  thought  that  the  army  was  overwhelmed  and  buried  by  one 
of  those  fatal  storms,  called  simooms,  that  so  frequently  sweep 
over  those  dreary  wastes  of  sand. 

Cambyses  had  meanwhile  sent  an  embassy  to  the  Ethiopians, 
a  people  of  large  and  powerful  frame,  demanding  their  submission  ; 
but  he  had  received  in  reply  a  bow,  with  the  message  that  when 
a  Persian  archer  could  bend  it,  then  Cambyses  might  think  of 
making  war  against  the  Ethiopians.  The  king  immediately  set 
his  army  in  motion,  to  punish  their  insolence  ;  but  the  terrors  of 
the  Nubian  desert,  rather  than  the  valor  of  the  foe,  caused  him 
to  turn  back,  with  the  object  of  the  expedition  very  unsatis- 
factorily accomplished. 

Irritated  by  the  ill-success  of  his  plans,  and  beheving  that  the 
Egyptians,  taking  advantage  of  his  misfortunes,  were  concerting 
a  revolt,  he  began  to  treat  them  with  great  severity.  Herodotus 
says  that  he  vented  his  rage  especially  upon  the  priests,  whom  he 
caused  to  be  scourged,  and  that  he  stabbed,  with  his  own  hand, 
the  sacred  bull  Apis,  and  gave  the  flesh  to  the  dogs ;  but  inscrip- 
tions recently  brought  to  light,  cast  discredit  upon  this  part  of  the 
historian's  account,  for  they  reveal  the  fact  that  the  bull  died  a 
natural  death,  and  was  accorded  the  usual  funeral  honors  by 
Cambyses. 

Cambyses  had  set  out  on  his  return  to  Persia,  when  news  was 
brought  to  him  that  his  brother  Smerdis  had  usurped  the  throne, 
and  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  king.  A  Magian  impostor, 
Gomates  by  name,  who  resembled  the  murdered  Smerdis,  had 
personated  him,  and  actually  grasped  the  sceptre.  Cambyses, 
already  depressed  in  spirits  by  the  small  success  attending  his 
expedition,  was  entirely  disheartened  by  this  startling  intelligence, 
and  in  despair  took  his  own  hfe. 


REIGN  OF   THE  PSEUDO-SMERDIS.  137 

Reign  of  the  Pseudo-Smerdis  (522-521  b.c).  —  The  circum- 
stances of  this  reign  are  interesting  on  account  of  the  insight  they 
give  us  into  the  hfe  of  an  Oriental  monarch,  and  the  Hght  they 
throw  upon  rehgious  matters. 

There  were  at  this  time  two  opposing  rehgions  in  Persia  :  Zoro- 
astrianism,  which  taught  the  simple  worship  of  God  under  the 
name  of  Ormazd ;  and  Magianism,  a  less  pure  faith,  whose  pro- 
fessors were  fire-worshippers. 

The  former  was  the  religion  of  the  Aryans  ;  the  latter,  that  of 
the  non-Aryan  portion  of  the  population.  The  usurpation  which 
placed  Smerdis  on  the  throne  was  planned  by  the  Magi,  Smerdis 
himself  being  a  fire-priest.  Of  course  the  people  were  kept  in  pro- 
found ignorance  of  the  real  character  of  the  new  king,  and  they  be- 
lieved that  they  had  for  a  monarch  the  true  son  of  the  Great  Cyrus. 
For  seven  months  Smerdis  succeeded  in  concealing  the  fraud  from 
the  nation  at  large.  He  took  every  precaution  to  prevent  the  facts 
from  becoming  known.  The  wives  of  his  harem,  many  of  whom 
must  have  known  the  real  Smerdis,  were  kept  apart  in  different 
chambers,  and  no  one  was  allowed  to  see  them.  Smerdis  himself 
kept  close  within  the  walls  of  his  palace,  and  admitted  no  one  to 
an  audience  that  had  known  the  murdered  prince. 

But  all  was  in  vain.  The  very  precautions  that  Smerdis  took 
awakened  suspicion,  and  at  last  the  fraud  was  discovered.  Sev- 
eral nobles,  indignant  at  the  deception  that  had  been  practised, 
forced  their  way  to  the  presence  of  Smerdis,  and  the  false  king 
paid  for  his  short-lived  authority  and  royal  honors  with  his  life. 

Reign  of  Darius  1.(521-486  b.c).  —  The  leader  of  the  nobles 
who  rescued  the  sceptre  from  the  grasp  of  the  false  Smerdis  was 
Darius,  son  of  Hystaspes.  We  are  left  in  no  doubt  respecting  his 
descent  and  titles,  for  on  his  tomb  is  this  legend  :  ''  Darius,  the 
Great  King,  the  King  of  kings ;  the  King  of  all  inhabited  coun- 
tries ;  the  King  of  the  great  earth,  far  and  near ;  the  son  of 
Hystaspes,  an  Akhaemenian ;  a  Persian,  the  son  of  a  Persian ;  an 
Aryan,  of  Aryan  descent." 

The  first  act  of  Darius  was  to  punish,  by  a  general  massacre, 


138 


THE   PERSIAN  EMPIRE. 


the  Magian  priests  for  the  part  they  had  taken  in  the  usurpation 
by  Smerdis.  The  pure  Zoroastrian  worship  was  re-instated  ;  and 
the  temples  which  had  been  destroyed  by  the  Magians,  or  fire- 
worshippers,  were  restored.  All  the  inscriptions  of  Darius  evince 
great  zeal  for  the  restored  rehgion,  and  breathe  a  spirit  of  pious 
dependence  upon  Ormazd. 

For  several  years  the  monarch  was  busy  suppressing  revolts  in 
almost  every  province  of  his  wide  dominions.  In  all  the  ancient 
Oriental  despotisms,  disaffections  and  uprisings  were  almost  always 
the  accompaniment  of  dynastic  changes.  A  sovereignty  acquired 
by  the  sword  must  be  maintained  by  the  same  means. 


vi^liv..-:^ 


CAPTIVE    INSURGENTS    BROUGHT    BEFORE    DARIUS.      Beneath    his   foot    is   the    Magus 
Gomates,  the  false  Smerdis.     (From  the  great  Behistun  Rock.) 


With  quiet  and  submission  secured  throughout  the  empire, 
Darius  gave  himself,  for  a  time,  to  the  arts  of  peace.  He  built  a 
palace  at  Susa,  and  erected  magnificent  structures  at  Persepohs ; 
reformed  the  administration  of  the  government  (see  p.  144),  mak- 
ing such  wise  and  lasting  changes  that  he  has  been  called  "  the 


REIGN  OF  DARIUS  I.  139 

second  founder  of  the  Persian  empire  "  ;  established  post-roads, 
centering  in  Susa,  instituted  a  coinage  for  the  reahii,  and  upon 
the  great  rock  of  Behistun,  a  lofty  smooth-faced  cliff  on  the 
western  frontier  of  Persia,  caused  to  be  inscribed  a  record  of 
all  his  achievements.^ 

And  now  the  Great  King,  Lord  of  Western  Asia  and  of  Egypt, 
conceived  and  entered  upon  the  execution  of  vast  designs  of  con- 
quest, the  far-reaching  effects  of  which  were  destined  to  live  long 
after  he  had  passed  away.  Inhospitable  steppes  on  the  north,  and 
burning  desejts  on  the  south,  whose  shifting  sands  within  a  period 
yet  fresh  in  memory  had  been  the  grave  of  a  Persian  army,  seemed 
to  be  the  barriers  which  Nature  herself  had  set  for  the  limits  of 
empire  in  these  directions.  But  on  the  eastern  flank  of  the  king- 
dom the  rich  and  crowded  plains  of  India  invited  the  conqueror 
with  promises  of  endless  spoils  and  revenues ;  while  on  the  west 
a  new  continent,  full  of  unknown  mysteries,  presented  virgin  fields 
never  yet  traversed  by  the  army  of  an  Eastern  despot. 

Darius  determined  to  extend  the  frontiers  of  his  empire  in  both 
these  directions.  He  first  despatched,  according  to  credible  ac- 
counts, two  naval  expeditions  of  observation  —  one  to  seek  infor- 
mation respecting  the  Indus  country,  and  the  other  to  make  such 
investigations  of  the  western  seas  and  Grecian  states  as  might  be 
needful  to  his  plans. 

At  one  blow  the  region  of  northwestern  India  known  as  the 
Punjab,  was  brought  under  Persian  authority  ;  and  thus  with  a  sin- 
gle effort  were  the  eastern  limits  of  the  empire  pushed  out  so  as  to 
include  one  of  the  richest  countries  of  Asia  —  one  which  hence- 
forth returned  to  the  Great  King  an  annual  revenue  vastly  larger 
than  that  of  any  other  province  hitherto  acquired,  not  even  except- 
ing the  rich  district  of  Babylonia. 

With  an  army  numbering,  it  is  said,  more  than   700,000  men, 

1  This  important  inscription  is  written  in  the  cuneiform  characters,  and  in 
three  languages,  Aryan,  Turanian,  and  Semitic.  It  is  the  Rosetta  Stone  of 
the  cuneiform  writings,  the  key  to  their  treasures  having  been  obtained  from 
its  parallel  columns. 


140  THE  PERSIAN  EMPIRE. 

Darius  now  crossed  the  Bosphorus  by  means  of  a  sort  of  pontoon 
bridge,  constructed  by  Grecian  architects,  and  passing  the  Danube 
by  means  of  a  similar  bridge,  penetrated  far  into  what  is  now  Rus- 
sia, which  was  then  occupied  by  Scythian  hordes.  Adopting  the 
same  tactics  employed  by  the  Russians  two  thousand  years  later, 
when  Napoleon  led  an  army  of  nearly  equal  strength  into  the  same 
country,  the  natives  retreated  as  the  Persians  advanced,  refusing 
batde,  filling  the  wells,  and  destroying  everything  that  might  be  of 
service  to  the  enemy.  After  a  short  campaign  of  two  months, 
Darius  retreated  from  the  country,  effecting  the  movement,  how- 
ever, without  those  terrible  losses  and  experiences  which  have 
made  the  later  expedition  the  gloomiest  episode  of  modern 
history. 

The  results  of  the  expedition  were  the  addition  of  Thrace  to 
the  Persian  empire,  and  the  making  of  Macedonia  a  tributary 
kingdom.  Thus  the  Persian  kings  secured  their  first  foothold 
upon  the  European  continent. 

The  most  significant  campaign  in  Europe  was  yet  to  follow.  In 
500  B.C.,  the  Ionian  cities  in  Asia  Minor  subject  to  the  Persian 
authority  revolted.  Miletus  was  the  foremost  city  concerned  in 
the  rebellion.  Athens,  and  Eretria  on  the  island  of  Euboea,  lent 
aid  to  their  sister  states.  Sardis  was  sacked  and  burned  by  the 
insurgents. 

With  the  revolt  crushed  and  punished  with  great  severity,  and 
with  his  power  re-estabhshed  to  the  Hellespont,  Darius  determined 
to  chastise  the  European  Greeks,  and  particularly  the  Athenians, 
for  their  insolence  in  giving  aid  to  his  rebellious  subjects.  Herod- 
otus tells  us  that  he  appointed  a  person  whose  sole  duty  it  was 
daily  to  stir  up  the  purpose  of  the  king  with  the  words,  ''  Master, 
remember  the  Athenians." 

A  large  land  and  naval  armament  was  fitted  out  and  placed 
under  the  command  of  Mardonius,  son-in-law  of  Darius.  The 
land  forces  suffered  severe  losses  at  the  hands  of  the  barbarians  of 
Thrace,  and  the  fleet  was  wrecked  by  a  violent  storm  off  Mount 
Athos,  three  hundred  ships  being  lost  (492  B.C.). 


REIGN  OF  XERXES  I.  141 

Two  years  after  this  disaster,  another  expedition,  consisting  of 
120,000  men,  under  the  command  of  Datis  and  Artaphemes,  was 
borne  by  ships  across  the  ^gean  to  the  plains  of  Marathon.  The 
details  of  the  significant  encounter  that  there  took  place  between 
the  Persians  and  the  Athenians  will  be  given  when  we  come  to 
narrate  the  history  of  Greece.  We  need  now  simply  note  the 
result,  —  the  complete  overthrow  of  the  Persian  forces  by  the 
Greeks  under  Miltiades  (490  B.C.). 

Darius,  angered  beyond  measure  by  the  failure  of  the  expedi- 
tion, stirred  up  all  the  provinces  of  his  vast  empire,  and  called  for 
new  levies  from  far  and  near,  resolved  upon  leading  in  person  such 
an  army  into  Greece  that  the  insolent  Athenians  should  be  crushed 
at  a  single  blow,  and  the  tarnished  glory  of  the  Persian  arms 
restored.  In  the  midst  of  these  preparations,  with  the  Egyptians 
in  revolt,  the  king  suddenly  died,  in  the  year  486  B.C. 

Reign  of  Xerxes  I.  (486-465  b.c).  — The  successor  of  Darius, 
his  son  Xerxes,  though  more  inclined  to  indulge  in  the  ease  and 
luxury  of  the  palace  than  to  subject  himself  to  the  hardship  and 
discipline  of  the  camp,  was  urged  by  those  about  him  to  an  active 
prosecution  of  the  plans  of  his  father. 

After  crushing  the  Egyptian  revolt  and  another  insurrection  in 
Babylonia,  the  Great  King  was  free  to  devote  his  attention  to  the 
distant  Greeks.  Mustering  the  contingents  of  the  different  prov- 
inces of  his  empire,  Xerxes  led  his  vast  army,  numbering,  if  we 
are  to  believe  Herodotus  (see  p.  219),  over  2,000,000  fighting  men, 
besides  an  equal  number  of  attendants,  over  the  bridges  he  had 
caused  to  be  thrown  across  the  Hellespont,  crushed  the  Spartan 
guards  at  the  Pass  of  Thermopylae,  pushed  on  into  Attica,  and  laid 
Athens  in  ruins.  But  there  fortune  forsook  him.  At  the  naval 
battle  of  Salamis,  his  fleet  was  cut  to  pieces  by  the  Grecian  ships ; 
and  the  king,  making  a  precipitate  retreat  back  into  Asia,  hastened 
to  his  capital,  Susa.  Here,  in  the  pleasures  of  the  harem,  he 
sought  solace  for  his  wounded  pride  and  broken  hopes.  He  at 
last  fell  a  victim  to  palace  intrigue,  being  slain  in  his  own  chamber, 
46s  B.C. 


142  THE  PERSIAN  EMPIRE. 

The  Decline  of  the  Persian  Empire.  — The  power  and  suprem- 
acy of  the  Persian  monarchy  passed  away  with  the  reign  of  Xerxes. 
The  story  of  the  empire  for  the  last  one  hundred  and  forty  years 
of  its  existence  is  simply  a  repetition  of  the  history  of  all  conquer- 
ing states.  Power  acquired  by  conquest,  and  wealth  gained  by 
robbery,  are  certain,  in  the  end,  to  corrupt  and  weaken  the  pos- 
sessor. The  closing  history  of  the  Persian  Empire  is  one  long 
recital  of  shameful  briberies,  corruptions,  court  intrigues,  and 
assassinations.  As  the  hand  that  wielded  the  sceptre  grew  weaker, 
the  more  remote  or  more  powerful  provinces  cast  off  their  alle- 
giance ;  and  the  records  of  the  kings  of  this  era  are  dreary  enumer- 
ations of  the  wars  and  campaigns  undertaken  to  punish  conspira- 
cies or  to  crush  open  revolt.  The  rising  power  of  the  Grecian  states 
in  the  West  was  also  a  constant  peril  and  menace  in  that  quarter. 

This  period  of  turbulence  and  anarchy  is  spanned  by  the  reigns 
of  eight  kings.  It  was  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  II.,  called 
Mnemon  for  his  remarkable  memory,  that  took  place  the  well- 
known  expedition  of  the  Ten  Thousand  Greeks  under  Cyrus,  the 
brother  of  Artaxerxes,  an  account  of  which  will  be  given  in  con- 
nection with  Grecian  history. 

The  Last  of  the  Persian  Kings. — That  mysterious  allotment 
of  Providence  by  which  the  consequences  of  the  follies  and  crimes 
of  a  long  line  of  ancestors  fall  upon  an  innocent  descendant,  is 
illustrated  anew  in  the  sad  story  of  Darius  III.,  the  last  of  the  Per- 
sian kings.  He  was  comely  in  person,  generous  in  disposition,  and 
free  from  most  of  those  faults  which  rendered  the  reigns  of  his 
predecessors  infamous.  Yet  it  was  his  misfortune  to  live  to  see  the 
weakened  empire  fall  to  pieces  in  his  hands,  and  to  become  him- 
self a  hunted  fugitive  in  a  remote  province  of  his  dominions. 

The  disclosures  of  the  preceding  reigns  invited  the  Macedonians 
to  the  invasion  and  conquest  of  the  empire.  Marathon,  Salamis, 
and  Platsea  had  shown  the  immense  superiority  of  the  free  soldiery 
of  Greece  over  the  splendid  but  servile  armies  of  Persia,  that  were 
often  driven  to  battle  with  the  lash.  The  march  of  the  Ten  Thou- 
sand through  the  very  heart  of  the  dominions  of  the  Great  King 


TABLE   OF  KINGS   OF  MEDIA    AND  PERSIA. 


143 


had  demonstrated  the  amazing  internal  weakness  of  the  empire. 
The  condition  of  the  Persian  monarchy  at  this  time  was  very  hke 
that  of  the  Roman  Empire  just  before  its  fall.  A  single  blow  will 
suffice  to  shatter  the  splendid  fabric  into  ruins. 

Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  was  the  destined  de- 
stroyer. In  the  year  334  B.C.,  that  conqueror  led  a  small  army  of 
thirty-five  thousand  Greeks  across  the  Hellespont.  The  great  bat- 
tles of  the  Granicus,  of  Issus,  and  Arbela  decided  the  fate  of  the  Per- 
sian Empire.  Darius  fled  from  the  last  field,  on  the  plains  of  Assyria, 
only  to  be  treacherously  assassinated  by  one  of  his  own  generals, 
Bessus,  satrap  of  Bactria.  Alexander  avenged  his  death,  and  caused 
his  body  to  be  buried  with  all  the  pompous  ceremonial  observed 
by  the  Persians. 

The  succeeding  movements  of  Alexander,  and  the  estabhshment 
by  him  of  the  short-lived  Macedonian  monarchy  upon  the  ruins  of 
the  Persian  state,  are  matters  that  properly  belong  to  Grecian  his- 
tory, and  will  be  related  in  a  following  chapter. 

TABLE   OF   KINGS   OF  MEDIA   AND   PERSIA. 

Phraortes ?     -625 

Kings  of  Media...  \    Cyaxares 625-585 

Astyages S^S-SS^ 

'  Cyrus    558-529 

Cambyses 529-522 

Pseudo-Smerdis 522-521 

Darius  1 521-486 

Xerxes  1 486-465 

Artaxerxes  I.  (Longimanus) 465-425 

Kings  of  Persia...  -j   Xerxes  II 425 

Sogdianus 425-424 

Darius  II.  (Nothus) 424-405 

Artaxerxes  II.  (Mnemon) 405-359 

Artaxerxes  III.  (Ochus) 359-338 

Arses Z7>^V:>^ 

.  Darius  III.  (Codomannus) Z1)^~ZZ^ 


144    INSTITUTIONS,   ETC.,    OF   THE  ANCIENT  PERSIANS. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

INSTITUTIONS,  RELIGION,  AND   ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE 
ANCIENT  PERSIANS. 

The  Persian  Government.  —  Before  the  reign  of  Darius  I.,  the 
government  of  the  Persian  Empire  was  Hke  that  of  all  the  great 
monarchies  that  had  preceded  it ;  that  is,  it  consisted  of  a  great 
number  of  subject  states,  which  were  allowed  to  retain  their  own 
kings  and  manage  their  own  affairs,  only  paying  tribute  and 
homage,  and  furnishing  contingents  in  time  of  war,  to  the  Great 
King.i 

We  have  seen  how  weak  was  this  rude  and  primitive  type  of 
government.  Darius  I.,  who  possessed  rare  ability  as  an  organizer, 
remodelled  the  system  of  his  predecessors,  and  actually  realized 
for  the  Persian  monarchy  what  Tiglath-Pileser  XL  had  long  before 
attempted,  with  indifferent  success,  to  accomplish  for  the  Assyrian. 
"  For  the  first  time  in  history  centralization  became  a  political 
fact." 

The  system  of  government  which  Darius  I.  thus  made  a  real 
fact  in  the  world,  —  and  which  was  reproduced,  if  not  imitated, 
by  the  Romans,  —  is  known  as  the  satrapal,  a  form  represented 
to-day  by  the  government  of  the  Turkish  Sultan.  The  entire 
kingdom  was  divided  into  twenty  or  more  provinces,  over  each  of 
which  was  placed  a  governor,  called  a  satrap,  appointed  by  the 
king.  These  officials  held  their  position  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
sovereign,  and  were  thus  rendered  his  subservient  creatures. 
Each  province  contributed  to  the  income  of  the  king  a  stated 

^  The  ideas  of  the  Assyrian  king  Tiglath-Pileser  IL,  were,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered, only  very  partially  realized;  the  Assyrian  monarchy  never  became  a 
thoroughly  organized  and  centralized  governiPient. 


LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION.  145 

revenue.  After  raising  this,  the  governor  was  at  Hberty  to  collect 
as  much  more  as  he  needed  to  sustain  such  a  court  and  retinue  as 
his  tastes  might  dictate.  These  often  being  capricious  and  ex- 
travagant, the  taxes  were  usually  exorbitant  and  oppressive ;  but 
so  long  as  the  annual  stipend  was  received  at  the  capital,  no 
inquiries  were  likely  to  be  made.  The  measures  of  these  satraps 
were  often  cruel  and  despotic  :  they  held  the  power  of  life  and 
death ;  and  justice  with  them  was  too  frequently  a  thing  of  price 
and  purchase. 

There  were  provisions  in  the  system  by  which  the  king  might 
be  apprised  of  the  disloyalty  of  his  satraps.  Thus  the  whole 
dominion  was  firmly  cemented  together,  and  the  facility  with 
which  almost  sovereign  states  —  which  was  the  real  character  of 
the  different  parts  of  the  empire  under  the  old  system  —  could 
plan  and  execute  revolt,  was  removed. 

Literature  and  Religion:  Zoroastrianism. — The  literature  of 
the  ancient  Persians  was  mostly  religious.  Their  sacred  book  is 
called  the  Zendavesta.  It  is  composed  of  eight  parts,  the  oldest 
of  which  is  named  the  Vendidad.  This  consists  of  laws,  incan- 
tations, and  mythical  tales. 

The  religious  system  of  the  Persians,  as  taught  in  the  Zenda- 
vesta, is  known  as  Zoroastrianism,  from  Zoroaster,  its  founder. 
This  great  reformer  and  teacher  is  now  generally  supposed  to 
have  lived  and  taught  about  looo  B.C. 

Zoroastrianism  seems  to  have  been  a  revolt  against  polytheistic 
tendencies  in  the  old  Aryan  religion.  Zoroaster  taught  belief  in  a 
Supreme  Being,  called  Ahura  Mazda,^  or  Ormazd ;  and  his  pre- 
cepts inculcated  virtue  and  purity.  His  teachings  produced  a 
religious  schism  among  the  hitherto  united  Indo-Iranian  peoples, 
which  led  to  their  final  separation,  and  to  the  establishment  of  the 
antagonistic  systems  of  Brahminism  in  Hindustan  and  Zoroastri- 
anism in  Persia. 

Dualism  in  the  Persian  Religion :  Influence  of  Country.  — 
The  system  of  Zoroaster  was  much  modified  by  the  nature  of  the 

1  Hence  Mazdeism,  the  name  sometimes  given  to  the  religion. 


146    INSTITUTIONS,   ETC.,    OF   THE   ANCIENT  PERSIANS. 

region  that  became  the  home  of  the  Iranian  peoples,  and  also  by 
the  sensuous  worship  of  the  Turanian  tribes  with  which  they  came 
in  contact. 

Persia  is  a  country  of  sharp  contrasts  :  winters  of  bitter  cold  are 
followed  closely  by  springs  of  surpassing  freshness  and  beauty,  and 
these  are  quickly  succeeded  by  hot,  withering  summers.  Frightful 
deserts  alternate  with  fertile  and  lovely  valleys.  Good  and  evil 
powers  seemed  thus,  to  the  observant  minds  of  those  early  peo- 
ples, to  be  waging  an  ever-renewed  conflict  in  the  world  around 
them.  Within  themselves,  also,  health  and  disease,  vice  and  vir- 
tue, evil  and  good,  appeared  ever  contending,  each  for  the  mastery. 

Hence  arose  the  system  of  belief  known  as  dualism,  the  germs  of 
which  are  traceable  in  the  earliest  Aryan  hymns.  The  Persians 
imagined  that  over  against  the  good  Ormazd  there  was  a  "  dark 
spirit,"  Ahriman  (Angro-Mainyus),  who  was  constantly  striving  to 
destroy  the  good  creations  of  Ormazd  by  creating  all  e\'il  powers  — 
storm,  drought,  pestilence,  noxious  animals,  weeds  and  thorns  in 
the  world  without,  and  evil  in  the  heart  of  man  within.  From  all 
eternity  these  two  powers  had  been  contending  for  the  mastery ; 
in  the  present  neither  had  the  decided  advantage  ;  but  in  the  near 
future  Ormazd  would  triumph  over  Ahriman,  and  evil  be  forever 
destroyed. 

The  duty  of  man  was  to  aid  Ormazd  by  working  with  him 
against  the  evil-loving  Ahriman.  He  must  labor  to  eradicate  every 
evil  and  vice  in  his  own  bosom ;  to  reclaim  the  earth  from  barren- 
ness ;  and  to  kill  all  bad  animals  —  frogs,  toads,  snakes,  lizards  — 
which  Ahriman  had  created.  Herodotus  saw  with  amazement  the 
Magian  priests  armed  with  weapons  and  engaged  in  slaying  these 
animals  as  a  "  pious  pastime."  Agriculture  was  a  sacred  calling, 
for  the  husbandman  was  reclaiming  the  ground  from  the  curse  of 
the  Dark  Spirit.  Thus  men  might  become  co-workers  with  Or- 
mazd in  the  mighty  work  of  overthrowing  and  destroying  the  king- 
dom of  the  wicked  Ahriman. 

The  evil  man  was  he  who  allowed  vice  and  degrading  passions 
to  find  a  place  in  his  own  soul,  and  neglected  to  exterminate  nox- 


ZOROASTRIANISM  INFLUENCED   BY  MAGIANISM.      147 

ious  animals  and  weeds,  and  to  help  redeem  the  earth  from  the 
barrenness  and  sterility  created  by  the  enemy  of  Ormazd. 

After  death  the  souls  of  the  good  and  bad  alike  must  pass  over 
a  narrow  bridge  :  the  good  soul  crosses  in  safety,  and  is  admitted 
to  the  presence  of  Ahura  Mazda ;  while  the  evil  soul  is  sure  to  fall 
from  the  path,  sharp  as  the  edge  of  a  scimitar,  into  a  pit  of  woe, 
the  dwelling-place  of  Ahriman. 

Zoroastrianism  Influenced  by  Magianism.  —  Zoroastrianism 
was  also  deeply  influenced  by  the  religion  of  the  ancient  people 
with  which  the  Aryans  blended,  especially  in  the  Median  provin- 
ces. There,  among  the  mountains  of  the  Zagros  region,  flourished 
a  sort  of  sensuous  nature-worship,  called  Magianism,  in  which  the 
elements  —  fire,  air,  earth,  and  water  —  were  esteemed  sacred  and 
were  made  objects  of  worship.^  Fire  was  regarded  with  special 
veneration,  as  the  purest  symbol  of  the  Supreme  Being.  This 
religion  was  really  but  a  modified  form  of  the  Sabaeism  of  the  early 
Chaldgeans.  The  lofty  summits  of  the  mountains  were  crowned 
with  altars,  upon  which  the  Magian  fires  burned  continually 
from  generation  to  generation.  The  system  possessed  a  vener- 
able priesthood,  and  a  ceremonial  of  worship  that  appealed  to 
the  grosser  senses. 

Zoroastrianism,  too  refined  and  spiritual  to  maintain  "its  hold 
upon  a  semi-barbarous  people,  naturally  became  corrupted  by  the 
sensuous  worship  of  the  Magians,  just  as  the  Hebrew  religion 
became  corrupted  by  the  idolatries  of  the  Canaanites.  The  two 
religions  blended ;    yet  the  faith  of  the  conquering  Aryans  ever 

1  After  the  Zoroastrians  had  added  to  their  creed  the  Magian  behef  in  the 
sacredness  of  the  elements,  —  earth,  water,  fire,  and  air,  —  there  arose  a  diffi- 
culty in  regard  to  the  disposal  of  dead  bodies.  They  could  neither  be  burned, 
buried,  thrown  into  the  water,  or  left  to  decay  in  a  sepulchral  chamber  or  in 
the  open  air  without  polluting  one  or  another  of  the  sacred  elements.  So  they 
were  given  to  the  birds  and  wild  beasts,  being  exposed  on  lofty  towers  or  in 
desert  places.  Those  whose  feelings  would  not  allow  them  thus  to  dispose  of 
their  dead,  were  permitted  to  bury  them,  provided  they  first  encased  the  body 
in  wax  to  preserve  the  ground  from  contamination.  The  modern  Parsees,  or 
Fne-worshippers,  give  their  dead  bodies  to  the  birds. 


148     INSTITUTIONS,   ETC.,    OF   THE  ANCIENT  PERSIANS. 

retained  the  most  prominent  place  in  the  new  worship.  The  form 
was  Magian,  but  its  spirit  was  Zoroastrian.  It  never  became  a 
really  idolatrous  worship,  and  was,  in  all  its  stages,  the  purest  and 
most  spiritual  religion  held  by  any  people  of  antiquity,  save  that 
professed  by  the  ancient  Hebrews. 

Between  the  Persians  and  the  Hebrews,  indeed,  there  existed  a 
bond  of  sympathy  in  their  religious  faith.  Cyrus  restored  the  cap- 
tive Jews  to  Jerusalem  and  aided  them  in  the  restoration  of  their 
temple,  in  which,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Persian  sanctuary,  appeared 
no  statue  of  the  object  of  worship.  Xerxes  burned  the  temples  of 
the  Greeks,  an  act  prompted  by  that  same  hatred  of  idolatry,  and 
by  that  same  zeal  for  the  spiritual  worship  of  the  Eternal  Unseen, 
that  led  the  Israelites  to  overturn  the  altars,  cut  down  the  groves, 
and  slay  the  priests  of  the  idolatrous  Canaanites. 

Persian  Architecture.  —  The  ancient  Persians  did  little  or  noth- 
ing in  science  and  philosophy,  but  in  architecture  they  originated 
an  order  superior  to  any  that  the  nations  which  preceded  them 
had  produced.  But  notwithstanding  that  Persian  structural  art 
was  home-born,  it  was  greatly  influenced  and  modified  by  both 
that  of  Assyria  and  of  Egypt. 

The  simple  religious  faith  of  the  Persians  discouraged  (though 
it  did  not  prohibit)  the  erection  of  temples  :  their  sacred  archi- 
tecture scarcely  included  more  than  an  altar  and  its  pedestal. 
The  palace  of  the  monarch  was  the  structure  that  absorbed  the 
best  efforts  of  the  Persian  artist. 

The  first  steps  in  royal  architecture  were  taken  by  the  Medes, 
who,  living  in  a  mountainous  and  woody  country,  built  wooden 
structures  for  their  palaces.  In  such  edifices,  the  column,  formed 
of  a  tree-trunk,  was  naturally  a  prominent  feature.  When  the 
Persians  gained  supremacy  in  the  state,  they  borrowed  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  Medes ;  but,  living  in  a  country  where  wood  was 
scarce  and  stone  abundant,  they  reproduced  the  wooden  residences 
of  the  Median  kings  in  the  latter  material. 

In  imitation  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates, 
they  raised   the    royal  residence  on  a  lofty  terrace,  or  platform. 


PERSIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


149 


150     INSTITUTIONS,   ETC.,    OF   THE  ANCIENT  PERSIANS. 

Here  again  they  transformed  the  mud-built  palace-mound  of  the 
Assyrians  into  stone,  and  at  Persepolis  raised,  for  the  substruction 
of  their  palaces,  an  immense  platform  of  massive  masonry,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  monuments  of  the  world's  ancient 
builders.     This  terrace,  which  is  uninjured  by  the  2300  years  that 


THE    KING    IN    COMBAT    WITH    A    MONSTER.       (From   Persepolis.) 

have  passed  since  its  erection,  is  about  1500  feet  long,  1000  feet 
wide,  and  40  feet  high.  The  summit  is  reached  by  broad  stair- 
ways of  stone,  pronounced  by  Niebuhr  and  Fergusson  the  finest 
work  of  the  kind  that  the  ancient  or  even  the  modern  world  can 
boast. 


REMAINS    OF   THE  PERSIAN  PALACES.  151 

Remains  of  the  Persian  Palaces.  —  Surmounting  this  platform 
are  the  ruins  of  the  palaces  of  several  of  the  Persian  monarchs, 
from  Cyrus  the  Great  to  Artaxerxes  Ochus.  These  ruins  consist 
chiefly  of  walls,  and  great  monolithic  door-  and  window-frames. 
The  whole  mass  of  buildings  is  supposed  to  have  been  burned  by 
Alexander  during  a  drunken  frohc.  Thirteen  lofty  columns,  sixty 
feet  in  height,  mark  the  site  of  the  Hall  of  Xerxes  —  the  audience 
chamber,  or  throne-room,  of  the  Great  King,  beneath  which  he 
sat  to  hear  and  judge  the  matters  of  his  subjects.  Colossal  winged 
bulls,  copied  from  the  Assyrians,  stand  as  wardens  at  the  gateway 
of  the  ruined  palaces. 

Numerous  sculptures  in  bas-relief  decorate  the  faces  of  the 
walls,  and  these  throw  much  light  upon  the  manners  and  customs 
of  the  ancient  Persian  kings.  The  successive  palaces  increase, 
not  only  in  size,  but  in  sumptuousness  of  adornment,  thus  register- 
ing those  changes  which  we  have  been  tracing  in  the  national 
history.  The  residence  of  Cyrus  was  small  and  modest,  while  that 
of  Artaxerxes  Ochus  equalled  in  size  the  great  palace  of  the  Assyr- 
ian Sargon. 

Again,  the  sculptures  that  adorn  the  residences  of  the  earlier 
kings,  Cyrus  and  Darius,  represent  the  monarch  engaged  in  bold 
and  manly  combat  with  lions  and  other  monsters ;  while  in  the 
halls  and  chambers  of  the  palace  of  Xerxes  these  give  place  to 
representations  of  servants  bearing  articles  of  luxury  intended  for 
royal  use.  "  A  tone  of  mere  sensual  enjoyment  is  thus  given  to 
the  later  edifice  which  is  far  from  characterizing  the  earlier ;  and 
the  decline  at  the  court,  which  history  indicates  as  rapid  about 
this  period,  is  seen  to  have  stamped  itself,  as  such  changes  usually 
do,  upon  the  national  architecture."  ^ 

^  Rawlinson's  Ancient  Monaj-chies,  Vol.  III.  p.  295. 


SECTION   II. —GREECE. 


CHAPTER   I. 

THE  LAND   AND  THE   PEOPLE. 

Divisions  of  Greece.  —  Long  arms  of  the  sea  divide  the  Grecian 
peninsula  into  three  parts,  called  Northern,  Central,  and  Southern 
Greece.  The  southern  portion,  joined  to  the  mainland  by  the 
Isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  now  generally  known  as  the  Morea,  was 
called  by  the  ancients  the  Peloponnesus ;  that  is,  the  Island  of 
Pelops,  from  its  fabled  colonizer. 

Northern  Greece  included  the  ancient  districts  of  Thessaly  and 
Epirus.  Thessaly  consists  mainly  of  a  large  and  beautiful  valley, 
walled  in  on  all  sides  by  rugged  mountains.  It  was  celebrated 
far  and  wide  for  the  variety  and  beauty  of  its  scenery.  On  its 
northern  edge,  between  Olympus  and  Ossa,  lay  a  beautiful  glen, 
called  the  Vale  of  Tempe,  the  only  pass  by  which  the  plain  of 
Thessaly  could  be  entered  from  the  north.  The  district  of  Epirus 
stretched  along  the  Ionian  Sea  on  the  west.  In  the  gloomy  re- 
cesses of  its  forests  of  oak  was  situated  the  renowned  Dodonean 
oracle  of  Zeus. 

Central  Greece  was  divided  into  eleven  districts.  The  most 
important  of  these  were  Acarnania,  ^tolia,  Phocis,  Boeotia,  and 
Attica.  In  Phocis  was  the  city  of  Delphi,  famous  for  its  oracle 
and  temple ;  in  Boeotia,  the  city  of  Thebes ;  and  in  Attica  was 
the  brilliant  Athens. 

Southern  Greece,  or  the  Peloponnesus,  was  also  divided  into 
eleven  provinces,  of  which  the  more  important  were  Arcadia, 
embracing  the  central  part  of  the  peninsula ;  Achaia,  the  northern 


MOUNTAINS.  153 

part ;  Argolis,  the  eastern  ;  and  Messenia  and  Laconia,  the  south- 
ern. The  last  district  was  ruled  by  the  city  of  Sparta,  the  great 
rival  of  Athens. 

Mountains.  —  The  Cambunian  Mountains  form  a  lofty  wall 
along  a  considerable  reach  of  the  northern  frontier  of  Greece, 
shutting  out  at  once  the  cold  winds  and  hostile  races  from  the 
north.  Branching  off  at  right  angles  to  these  mountains  is  the 
Pindus  range,  which  runs  south  into  Central  Greece. 

In  Northern  Thessaly  is  Mount  Olympus,  the  most  celebrated 
mountain  of  the  peninsula.  The  ancient  Greeks  thought  it  the 
highest  mountain  in  the  world  (it  is  9700  feet  in  height),  and 
believed  that  its  cloudy  summit  was  the  abode  of  the  celestials. 

South  of  Olympus,  close  by  the  sea,  are  Ossa  and  Pelion,  cele- 
brated in  fable  as  the  mountains  which  the  giants,  in  their  war 
against  the  gods,  piled  one  upon  another,  in  order  to  scale 
Olympus. 

Parnassus  and  Helicon,  in  Central  Greece,  —  beautiful  moun- 
tains clad  with  trees  and  vines  and  filled  with  fountains,  —  were 
believed  to  be  the  favorite  haunts  of  the  Muses.  Near  Athens  are 
Hymettus,  praised  for  its  honey,  and  Pentelicus,  renowned  for  its 
marbles. 

The  Peloponnesus  is  rugged  with  mountains  that  radiate  in  all 
directions  from  the  central  country  of  Arcadia,  —  "the  Switzerland 
of  Greece." 

Islands  about  Greece. — Very  much  of  the  history  of  Greece 
is  intertwined  with  the  islands  that  lie  about  the  mainland.  On 
the  east,  in  the  ^gean  Sea,  are  the  Cyclades,  so  called  because 
they  form  an  irregular  circle  about  the  sacred  isle  of  Delos,  where 
was  a  very  celebrated  shrine  of  Apollo.  Between  the  Cyclades  and 
Asia  Minor  lie  the  Sporades,  which  islands,  as  the  name  implies, 
are  sown  irregularly  over  that  portion  of  the  ^gean. 

Just  off  the  coast  of  Attica  is  a  large  island  called  by  the 
ancients  Euboea,  but  known  to  us  as  Negropont.  Close  to  the 
Asian  shores  are  the  large  islands  of  Lesbos,  Chios,  Samos,  and 
Rhodes.     Chios  was  widely  known  as  being  the   home   of  the 


154  THE  LAND  AND    THE  PEOPLE. 

alleged  descendants  of  Homer,  called  the  Homerides.  Samos 
was  the  birthplace  of  some  of  the  most  distinguished  artists  and 
philosophers  that  the  Greek  race  produced.  Rhodes  was  noted 
for  its  schools  of  oratory  and  sculpture,  and  its  commercial  activity. 

To  the  west  of  Greece  lie  the  Ionian  Islands,  the  largest  of 
which  was  called  Corcyra,  now  Corfu.  The  rugged  island  of 
Ithaca  was  the  birthplace  of  Ulysses,  the  hero  of  the  Odyssey. 
Cythera,  just  south  of  the  Peloponnesus,  was  sacred  to  Aphrodite 
(Venus),  as  it  was  here  fable  said  she  rose  from  the  sea-foam. 
Beyond  Cythera,  in  the  Mediterranean,  midway  between  Greece 
and  Egypt,  is  the  large  island  of  Crete,  noted  in  legend  for  its 
Labyrinth  and  its  legislator  Minos. 

Other  Lands  peopled  by  the  Greeks.  —  Under  the  name  of 
Hellas  (see  p.  155)  the  ancient  Greeks  included  not  only  Greece 
proper  and  the  islands  of  the  adjoining  seas,  but  also  the  Hellenic 
cities  in  Asia  Minor,  in  Southern  Italy,  and  in  Sicily,  besides  many 
other  Grecian  colonies  scattered  up  and  down  the  Mediterranean 
and  along  the  shores  of  the  Propontis  and  of  the  Euxine.  "  Where- 
ever  were  Hellenes  there  was  Hellas." 

In  the  Western  Mediterranean  the  Greeks  came  in  contact  with 
a  sea-going  and  colony- planting  people  hke  themselves,  —  the 
Phoenicians, —  and  hence  in  this  quarter  they  were  prevented  from 
establishing  their  colonies  as  thickly  as  they  otherwise  would  have 
done. 

During  the  later  periods  of  Greek  dominance,  many  magnifi- 
cent cities,  filled  with  Greek  citizens,  and  characterized  by  Hel- 
lenic manners,  language,  and  religion,  were  sprinkled  thickly  over 
the  different  countries  of  Asia  as  far  as  the  Indus. 

Influence  of  Country. — The  nature  and  position  of  a  coun- 
try, as  we  have  already  seen  illustrated  in  the  case  of  Phoenicia, 
have  much  to  do  with  the  moulding  of  the  character  and  the  shap- 
ing of  the  history  of  its  people.  Mountains,  isolating  neighboring 
communities  and  shutting  out  conquering  races,  foster  the  spirit  of 
local  patriotism  and  preserve  freedom ;  the  sea,  inviting  abroad, 
and  rendering  intercourse  with  distant  countries  easy,  awakens  the 
spirit  of  adventure  and  develops  commercial  enterprise. 


rilE  PELASGIANS.  155 

Now,  Greece  is  at  once  a  mountainous  and  a  maritime  country. 
Abrupt  mountain-walls  fence  it  off  into  a  great  number  of  isolated 
districts,  each  of  which  in  ancient  times  became  the  seat  of  a 
distinct  community,  or  state.  Hence  the  fragmentary  character 
of  its  political  history.  The  Hellenic  states  never  coalesced  to 
form  a  single  nation. 

The  peninsula  is,  moreover,  by  reason  of  deep  arms  and  bays 
of  the  sea,  converted  into  what  is  in  effect  an  archipelago.  (No 
spot  in  Greece  is  forty  miles  from  the  sea.)  Hence  its  people 
were  early  tempted  to  a  sea-faring  life.  The  shores  of  the  Med- 
iterranean and  the  Euxine  were  dotted  with  Hellenic  colonies. 
Intercourse  with  the  old  civilizations  of  Egypt  and  Phoenicia 
stirred  the  naturally  quick  and  versatile  Greek  intellect  to  early 
and  vigorous  thought.  The  islands  strewn  with  seeming  careless- 
ness through  the  /Egean  Sea  were  "stepping-stones  "  which  invited 
the  earliest  settlers  of  Greece  to  the  delightful  coast  countries  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  thus  blended  the  life  and  history  of  the  opposite 
shores. 

Again,  the  beauty  of  Grecian  scenery  inspired  many  of  the  most 
striking  passages  of  her  poets ;  and  it  is  thought  that  the  exhila- 
rating atmosphere  and  brilliant  skies  of  Attica  were  not  unrelated 
to  the  lofty  achievements  of  the  Athenian  intellect.  Indeed,  we 
may  almost  assert  that  the  wonderful  civilization  of  Greece  was  the 
product  of  a  land  of  incomparable  and  varied  beauties  acting  upon 
a  people  singularly  sensitive  to  the  influences  of  nature  (see  p.  159). 

The  Pelasgians.  —  The  historic  inhabitants  of  the  land  we  have 
described  were  called  by  the  Romans  Greeks,  but  they  called 
themselves  Hellenes,  from  their  fabled  ancestor  Hellen. 

But  the  Hellenes,  according  to  their  own  account,  were  not  the 
original  inhabitants  of  the  country.  They  were  preceded  by  a 
people  whom  they  called  Pelasgians.  Who  these  folk  were,  or 
what  was  their  relation  to  the  later  historic  Greeks,  is  a  matter  of 
debate.  Some  think  they  were  the  Aryan  pioneers  in  this  part  of 
Europe,  and  stood  in  some  such  relation  to  the  Greeks  as  the  Celts 
in  Western  Europe  sustained  to  the  Teutons.    Others  regard  them 


156  THE  LAND  AND    THE  PEOPLE. 

as  being  simply  the  prehistoric  ancestors  of  the  Hellenes,  or  of  a 
part  of  the  Hellenes,  just  as  the  Angles  and  Saxons  were  the  pro- 
genitors of  the  English  of  to-day.  Still  others  think  that  the 
Pelasgians  and  Hellenes  were  kindred  tribes,  but  that  the  Hel- 
lenes, possessing  superior  qualities,  gradually  acquired  ascendency 
over  the  Pelasgians  and  finally  absorbed  them. 

The  Pelasgians,  whoever  they  may  have  been,  evidently  were  a 
people  somewhat  advanced  beyond  the  savage  state.  They  culti- 
vated the  ground,  and  protected  their  cities  with  walls.  Remnants 
of  their  rude  but  massive  masonry  still  encumber  in  places  the  soil 
of  Greece.  Their  chief  deity  was  the  Dodonean  Zeus,  so  called 
from  his  sanctuary  of  Dodona,  in  Epirus.  He  was  essentially  the 
same  divinity  as  the  Olympian  Zeus  of  the  Greeks. 

The  Hellenes.  —  The  Hellenes  were  divided  into  four  families, 
or  tribes  :  namely,  the  lonians,  the  Dorians,  the  Achaeans,  and  the 

Cohans. 

The  lonians  were  a  many-sided,  imaginative  people,  singularly 
open  to  the  influences  of  the  outer  world.  They  developed  every 
part  of  their  nature,  and  attained  unsurpassed  excellence  in  art, 
literature,  and  philosophy.  The  most  noted  Ionian  city  was 
Athens,  whose  story  is  a  large  part  of  the  history  of  Hellas. 

The  Dorians  were  a  practical,  unimaginative  race.  Their  speech 
and  their  art  were  both  alike  without  ornament.  They  developed 
the  body  rather  than  the  mind.  Their  education  was  almost 
wholly  gymnastic  and  military.  They  were  unexcelled  as  war- 
riors. The  most  important  city  founded  by  them  was  Sparta,  the 
rival  of  Athens. 

In  the  different  aptitudes  and  contrasted  tendencies  of  these  two 
great  Hellenic  famiHes,  lay,  in  the  words  of  the  historian  Ranke, 
"  the  fate  of  Greece."  They  divided  Hellas  into  two  rival  parties, 
which  through  their  jealousies  and  contentions  finally  brought  to 
utter  ruin  all  the  political  hopes  and  promises  of  the  Hellenic 

race. 

The  Ach^ans  are  represented  by  the  Greek  legends  as  being 
the  predominant  race  in  the  Peloponnesus  during  the  Heroic  Age. 


THE  HELLENES.  157 

They  then  overshadowed  to  such  a  degree  all  the  other  tribes  as 
to  cause  their  name  to  be  frequently  used  for  the  Greeks  in 
general. 

The  ^olians  formed  a  rather  ill-defined  division.  In  historic 
times  the  name  is  often  made  to  include  all  Hellenes  not  enumer- 
ated as  lonians  or  Dorians. 

When  the  mists  of  antiquity  are  first  lifted  from  Greece,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century  B.C.,  we  discover  the  several 
famihes  of  the  Hellenic  race  in  possession  of  Greece  proper,  of  the 
islands  of  the  yEgean,  and  of  the  western  coasts  of  Asia  Minor. 
Respecting  their  prehistoric  migrations  and  settlements,  we  have 
little  or  no  certain  knowledge.  We  do  know,  however,  through  the 
testimony  of  language,  that  they  belonged  to  the  great  Aryan  fam- 
ily ;  that  their  ancestors  and  those  of  the  Romans,  after  they  had 
separated  from  the  other  Aryan  peoples,  lived  together  a  consider- 
able time  before  they  parted  company ;  and  finally,  that  after  this 
separation  all  the  ancestors  of  the  several  divisions,  or  tribes,  of 
the  Hellenes  dwelt  together  for  some  time  as  a  single  community 
before  they  separated  to  form  the  different  branches  of  the  Hel- 
lenic family. 

What  region  was  the  abode  of  the  Hellenes  while  they  still  con- 
stituted an  undivided  family,  we  can  only  conjecture.  Some  think 
that  it  was  Phrygia,  in  the  northwest  corner  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
that  from  that  station  successive  bands  of  emigrants  gradually 
spread  themselves  over  Greece  and  the  shores  and  islands  of  the 
^gean. 

The  last  companies  to  leave  the  Phrygian  home  appear  to  have 
been  the  ancestors  of  the  lonians  and  Dorians.  In  the  opinion  of 
some,  the  lonians  followed  the  course  of  the  Phrygian  rivers  to  the 
coast,  and,  after  having  there  developed  into  a  sea-loving  people, 
passed  over  to  continental  Greece  by  way  of  the  yEgean  islands ; 
while  the  Dorians  crossed  the  Hellespont  into  Europe,  and,  after 
living  for  a  while  as  farmers  and  shepherds  in  the  hilly  regions  of 
Macedonia  or  Northern  Greece,  pushed  southward,  in  time  estab- 
lishing themselves  as  the  dominant  race  in   the   Peloponnesus. 


158  THE  LAND  AND    THE  PEOPLE. 

Others,   however,   are   inclined  to  believe   that  all  the    Hellenes 
entered  Greece  by  the  way  of  Thrace. 

Oriental  Immigrants.  —  According  to  their  own  traditions  the 
early  growth  of  civilization  among  the  European  Hellenes  was 
promoted  by  the  settlement  among  them  of  Oriental  immigrants, 
who  brought  with  them  the  arts  and  culture  of  the  different  coun- 
tries of  the  East. 

From  Egypt,  legend  affirms,  came  Cecrops,  bringing  with  him 
the  arts,  learning,  and  priestly  wisdom  of  the  Nile  valley.  He 
is  represented  as  the  builder  of  the  citadel  (the  Cecropid)  of  what 
was  afterwards  the  illustrious  city  of  Athens.  From  the  same  land 
Danaus  is  also  said  to  have  come  with  his  fifty  daughters,  and  to 
have  built  the  citadel  of  Argos.  From  Phoenicia  Cadmus  brought 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and  founded  the  city  of  Thebes.  The 
Phrygian  Pelops,  the  progenitor  of  the  renowned  heroes  Agamem- 
non and  Menelaus,  settled  in  the  southern  peninsula,  which  was 
called  after  him  the  Peloponnesus  (the  Island  of  Pelops). 

The  nucleus  of  fact  in  all  these  legends  is  probably  this,  —  That 
the  European  Greeks  received  the  primary  elements  of  their  cul- 
ture from  the  East  through  their  Asiatic  kinsmen.  That  they  did 
in  this  manner  receive  at  least  many^  of  the  rudiments  of  their  civil- 
ization does  not  admit  of  doubt.  For  at  the  very  time  that  the 
Ionian  Greeks  were  spreading  themselves  over  the  western  coast 
of  Asia  Minor  and  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  the  Phoenicians 
were  establishing  their  colonies  in  Crete  and  along  the  Asian 
shores,  and  carrying  with  them  the  arts  and  culture  of  Egypt  and 
Babylonia.  At  the  same  time  the  Hittites  also,  having  extended 
their  power  throughout  Asia  Minor,  were  spreading  the  civilization 
of  the  Euphrates  to  the  shores  of  the  yEgean. 

Thus  the  Asiatic  Greeks  were  early  brought  into  contact  with 
the  civilization  of  the  East ;  that  they  profited  by  the  contact  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  among  them  appeared  the  first-fruits  of 
Hellenic  art  and  thought.  These  new  germs  of  culture,  vitalized 
by  their  own  quickening  genius,  the  Oriental  Greeks  transmitted  to 
their  kinsmen  in  Europe,  where  they  were  destined,  in  the  favor- 


THE    GREEK   GENIUS.  159 

ing  soil  of  Attica,  to  produce  the  crowning  flower  of  Hellenic  civil- 
ization. 

The  Greek  Genius. — That  what  has  just  been  said  respecting 
the  transmission  of  the  primary  elements  of  Greek  culture  from 
the  Orient,  may  not  leave  a  wrong  impression  upon  the  mind  of 
the  student,  —  leading  him  to  suppose  that  in  the  old  civilizations 
of  the  East  he  has  found  the  chief  sources  of  Hellenic  civiliza- 
tion,—  we  must  here  say,  that  the  most  profound  students  of 
Greek  history  believe  that  the  chief  factor  after  all  in  the  won- 
derful product  we  call  Greek  civilization,  was  the  Greek  genius 
itself. 

For  it  is  with  races  as  with  individuals.  Men  of  an  extraordi- 
nary personality  are  not  the  product  of  education  or  of  circum- 
stances. They  are  born,  not  made.  It  is  the  mental  aptitudes  of 
the  Hellenes,  that  original,  versatile,  imaginative  genius,  that 
love  of  the  beautiful  and  sense  of  proportion,  that  sensitiveness  to 
the  influences  of  nature  which  we  have  already  mentioned  as 
characterizing  the  Ionian  Greeks  above  ah  others,  —  it  is  these 
rare  mental  qualities,  gained  we  know  not  how,  which  the  Greeks 
possessed  when  they  entered  the  lands  they  occupied  in  historic 
times,  that  afford  the  only  satisfactory  explanation  of  their  won- 
derful achievements  in  art,  in  literature,  and  in  philosophy.  With- 
out the  quickening  power  of  the  Greek  genius,  the  germs  of 
culture  transmitted  to  the  West  from  the  East  would  have  lain  dor- 
mant, or  have  developed  into  less  perfect  and  less  admirable 
forms.  It  was  a  case  of  good  seed  falling  into  good  ground  — 
and  it  brought  forth  a  hundred- fold. 

Local  Patriotism  of  the  Greeks :  the  City  the  Political  Unit. 
—  The  narrow  political  sympathies  of  the  ancient  Greeks  pre- 
vented their  ever  uniting  to  form  a  single  nation.  The  city  was 
with  them  the  political  unit.  It  was  regarded  as  a  distinct,  self- 
governing  state,  just  like  a  modem  nation.  A  citizen  of  one 
city  was  an  alien  in  any  other :  he  could,  not  marry  a  woman  of  a 
city  not  his  own,  nor  hold  property  in  houses  or  lands  within  its 
territory. 


160  THE  LAND  AND    THE  PEOPLE, 

But  the  Greek  idea  of  a  city  was  quite  different  from  ours.  An 
ancient  Greek  city  included  primarily  nothing  more  than  a  terri- 
torial area,  or  district.  Thus  the  districts,  or  townships,  of  Arca- 
dia had  applied  to  them  the  Greek  word  (ttoAis)  for  city. 

However,  a  district  sprinkled  with  isolated  dwellings  or  unpro- 
tected villages  did  not  constitute  an  ideal  city.  There  must  be 
included  in  the  district  a  walled  town,  containing  pubhc  buildings, 
such  as  theatres,  temples,  agoras,  and  gymnasia.  Often  the  city 
consisted  simply  of  a  walled  town,  with  a  few  surrounding  farms, 
a  strip  of  sea-coast,  or  a  small  mountain-encircled  valley  or  plain. 
In  other  cases,  the  city  embraced,  besides  the  central  town,  a 
large  number  of  smaller  places.  Thus  the  city  of  Athens,  in  its 
most  prosperous  days,  included  all  Attica  with  its  one  hundred 
and  seventy-four  villages  and  towns,  some  of  which  were  walled 
places.  Each  of  these  villages,  politically  speaking,  was  an  inte- 
gral part  of  Athens,  and  those  of  their  inhabitants  who  enjoyed 
the  privilege  of  voting  in  the  public  assembly  at  the  capital 
were  Athenian  citizens. 

According  to  the  Greek  conception,  again,  the  model  city  (or 
state,  as  we  should  say)  must  not  be  over  large.  In  this,  as  in 
everything  else,  the  ancient  Greeks  applied  the  Delphian  rule  — 
"Measure  in  all  things."  "A  small  city,"  says  one  of  their 
poets,  "  set  upon  a  rock  and  well  governed,  is  better  than  all  fool- 
ish Nineveh."  Aristotle  thought  that  the  ideal  city  should  not 
have  more  than  ten  thousand  citizens.  According  to  this, 
Athens  was  too  large  for  a  model  city,  as  its  list  of  citizens 
numbered  at  one  time  somewhere  between  twenty  and  thirty 
thousand. 

Hellenes  and  Barbarians.  —  While  the  narrow  political  sympa- 
thies of  the  ancient  Greeks  separated  them  into  numerous  petty 
city-states,  and  prevented  the  various  Hellenic  tribes  from  ever 
coalescing  into  a  real  nation,  still  the  bonds  of  race,  of  language, 
and  of  religion  tended  to  draw  them  all  together  into  a  sort  of 
fraternal  union,  or  brotherhood.  They  always  regarded  themselves 
as  members  of  a  single  family  :  all  were  descended,  according  to 


HELLENES  AND  BARBARIANS.  161 

their  fabled  genealogy,  from  the  common  progenitor  Hellen.^  All 
non- Hellenic  peoples  they  called  Barbarians.  At  first  this  term 
scarcely  meant  more  than  "  unintelligible  folk,"  carrying  with  it  no 
intimation  of  lack  of  culture  in  the  people  to  whom  it  was 
applied.  But  later,  when  the  Greeks  became  conscious  of  their 
intellectual  superiority  to  their  neighbors,  it  came  to  express  not 
simply  aversion  to  a  foreign  tongue,  but  contempt  founded  upon 
inferiority. 

1  According  to  the  mythical  genealogy  of  the  Greeks,  Hellen  (son  of 
Deucalion,  the  Grecian  Noah)  had  three  sons,  yEolus,  Dorus,  and  Xuthus. 
^olus  and  Dorus  were  the  ancestors  respectively  of  the  ^^olians  and  Dorians. 
Xuthus  had  two  sons.  Ion  and  Achaeus,  the  first  the  progenitor  of  the 
lonians,  and  the  second  of  the  Achseans, 


162  THE  LEGENDARY  OR  HEROIC  AGE, 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE   LEGENDARY   OR   HEROIC  AGE. 

(From  the  earliest  times  to  776  B.C.) 

Character  of  the  Legendary  Age. — The  real  history  of  the 
Greeks  does  not  begm  before  the  eighth  century  B.C.  All  that  lies 
back  of  that  date  is  an  inseparable  mixture  of  myth,  legend,  and 
fact.  Yet  this  shadowy  period  forms  the  background  of  Grecian 
history,  and  we  cannot  understand  the  ideas  and  acts  of  the 
Greeks  of  historic  times  without  some  knowledge,  at  least,  of 
what  they  believed  their  ancestors  did  and  experienced  in  those 
prehistoric  ages. 

So,  as  a  sort  of  prelude  to  the  story  we  have  to  tell,  we  shall 
repeat  some  of  the  legends  of  the  Greeks  respecting  their  national 
heroes  and  their  great  labors  and  undertakings.  But  it  must  be 
carefully  borne  in  mind  that  these  legends  are  not  history.  Where, 
however,  there  seems  to  be  sufficient  ground  to  justify  an  opinion, 
we  shall  suggest  what  may  be  the  grain  of  truth  in  any  particular 
legend,  or  what  part  of  it  may  be  a  dim  though  confused  remem- 
brance of  actual  events. 

The  Heroes:  Heracles,  Theseus,  and  Minos. — The  Greeks 
believed  that  their  ancestors  were  a  race  of  heroes  of  divine  or 
semi-divine  lineage.  Every  tribe,  district,  city,  and  village  even, 
preserved  traditions  of  its  heroes,  whose  wonderful  exploits  were 
commemorated  in  song  and  story.  Many  of  these  personages 
acquired  national  renown,  and  became  the  revered  heroes  of  the 
whole  Greek  race. 

The  heroes  were  doubtless,  in  some  cases,  historical  persons, 
but  so  much  of  myth  and  fable  has  gathered  about  their  names 


THE  HEROES:    HERACLES,    THESEUS,   AND   MINOS.     163 

that  it  is  impossible  to  separate  that  which  is  really  historical  from 
what  is  purely  fabulous. 

Among  the  most  noted  of  the  heroes  are  Heracles  (commonly 
called  Hercules),  Theseus,  and  Minos. 

Heracles,  who  sprang  from  the  royal  line  established  at  Argos 
by  Danaus  (see  p.  158),  was  the  greatest  of  the  national  heroes  of 
the  Greeks.  He  is  represented  as  performing,  besides  various  other 
exploits,  twelve  superhuman  labors,  —  among  which  were  the  slay- 
ing of  the  Nemean  lion,  the  destruction  of  the  Lernaean  hydra, 
the  cleansing  of  the  stables  of  Augeas,  and  the  bringing  of  Cer- 
berus from  the  infernal  regions,  —  and  as  being  at  last  translated 
from  a  blazing  pyre  to  a  place  among  the  immortal  gods. 

The  myth  of  Heracles  is  made  up  mainly  of  the  very  same  fables 
that  were  told  of  the  Chaldaean  solar  hero  Izdubar  (see  p.  73). 
Through  the  Phoenicians  and  the  peoples  of  Asia  Minor,  these 
stories  found  their  way  to  the  Greeks,  who  ascribed  to  their  own 
Heracles  the  deeds  of  the  Chaldaean  sun-god.  Like  the  Babylo- 
nian Izdubar,  Heracles  was  at  first  a  solar  divinity ;  but,  trans- 
formed and  idealized  by  the  Greek  imagination,  he  became  at  last 
the  personification  and  ideal  type  of  the  lofty  moral  qualities  of 
heroism,  self-sacrifice,  and  endurance,  as  well  as  the  symbol  of 
the  bravery,  sufferings,  and  achievements  of  the  pioneers  of  Greek 
civilization. 

Theseus,  a  descendant  of  Cecrops,  was  the  favorite  hero  of  the 
Athenians,  being  one  of  their  legendary  kings.  Among  his  great 
works  were  the  clearing  of  the  Isthmian  highways  of  robbers,  the 
slaying  of  the  Minotaur,  —  a  monster  which  Minos,  king  of  Crete, 
kept  in  a  labyrinth,  and  fed  upon  youths  and  maidens  sent  from 
Athens  as  a  forced  tribute,  —  the  defeat  of  the  Amazons,  and  the 
consolidation  of  the  twelve  boroughs,  or  cantons,  of  Attica  into  a 
single  state. 

The  legend  of  Theseus  doubtless  contains  a  substantial  kernel 
of  history.  The  consolidation  of  Attica  and  the  founding  of 
Athens  were  certainly  historical  events,  while  the  slaying  of  the 
Minotaur  may  be  taken  to  symbolize  the  freeing  of  the  Athenians 


164  THE  LEGENDARY   OR  HEROIC  AGE. 

from  a  tribute  paid  to  the  Phoenicians  of  Crete,  whose  custom  ot 
sacrificing  children  to  Moloch  probably  lent  to  the  myth  its  pecu- 
liar form. 

Minos,  who  has  already  been  mentioned  as  the  king  of  Crete, 
was  one  of  the  great  tribal  heroes  of  the  Dorians.  Legend  makes 
him  a  legislator  of  divine  wisdom,  the  suppressor  of  piracy  in  the 
Grecian  seas,  and  the  founder  of  the  first  great  maritime  state  of 
Hellas.  ^ 

Associated  Undertakiiigs  of  the  Heroes.  —  Besides  the  labors 
and  exploits  of  single  heroes,  such  as  we  have  been  naming,  the 
legends  of  the  Greeks  tell  of  three  especially  memorable  enter- 
prises which  were  conducted  by  bands  of  heroes.  These  were  the 
Argonautic  Expedition,  the  Seven  against  Thebes,  and  the  Siege 
of  Troy. 

The  Argonautic  Expedition.  —  The  tale  of  this  enterprise  is 
told  with  many  variations  in  the  legends  of  the  Greeks.  Jason,  a 
prince  of  Thessaly,  with  fifty  companion  heroes,  among  whom  were 
Heracles,  Theseus,  and  Orpheus,  the  latter  a  musician  of  super- 
human skill,  the  music  of  whose  lyre  moved  brutes  and  stones,  set 
sail  in  "  a  fifty-oared  galley,"  called  the  Argo  (hence  the  name 
Argonauts,  given  to  the  heroes),  in  search  of  a  "  golden  fleece  " 
which  was  fabled  to  be  nailed  to  a  tree  and  watched  by  a  dragon, 
in  the  Grove  of  Ares,  on  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Euxine,  an 
inhospitable  region  of  unknown  terrors.  The  expedition  is  suc- 
cessful, and,  after  many  wonderful  adventures,  the  heroes  return 
in  triumph  with  the  sacred  relic. 

Different  meanings  have  been  given  to  this  tale.  In  its  primi- 
tive form  it  was  doubtless  a  pure  myth  of  the  rain- clouds  ;  but  in 
its  later  forms  we  may  believe  it  to  symbolize  the  maritime  explo- 
rations in  the  eastern  seas,  of  some  of  the  tribes  (conjecturally  the 
Minyans,  of  Orchomenus  in  Boeotia)  of  Pelasgian  Greece. 

The  Seven  against  Thebes.  —  The  story  of  the  War  of  the 
Seven  against  Thebes  is  second  in  interest  and  importance  only  to 
that  of  the  Siege  of  Troy.  The  tale  begins  with  Laius,  king  of 
Thebes,  —  the  third  in  descent  from  Cadmus,  —  who,  having  been 


THE   SEVEN  AGAINST   THEBES.  165 

warned  by  an  oracle  that  he  would  be  slain  by  his  own  son,  should 
one  be  born  to  him,  thought  to  prevent  the  fulfilment  of  the  pre- 
diction by  causing  his  infant  child  to  be  exposed  on  Mount  Cithae- 
ron.  The  child  was  rescued  by  a  herdsman,  and  brought  up  by 
the  king  of  Corinth,  having  been  given  the  name  of  CEdipus. 

Upon  reaching  manhood,  CEdipus  went  to  the  oracle  at  Delphi 
to  make  inquiry  respecting  his  parentage.  The  only  answer  he 
received  was  a  warning  not  to  return  to  his  native  country,  or  else 
he  would  kill  his  father  and  become  the  husband  of  his  own 
mother.  Therefore,  avoiding  Corinth,  CEdipus  turned  towards 
Thebes,  but  on  the  way  met  Laius  with  an  attendant,  and  in  a 
quarrel  which  arose  killed  the  king,  not  knowing  him  to  be  his 
father. 

Shortly  after  this  event  the  Thebans  were  distressed  by  a 
woman-headed  monster,  called  the  Sphinx,  who  proposed  a  rid- 
dle ^  to  them,  and,  as  often  as  they  failed  in  their  answers,  seized 
and  devoured  one  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  city.  The  crown  of 
Thebes  and  the  hand  of  the  widow  (Jocasta)  of  Laius  were  offered 
to  any  one  who  should  solve  the  riddle.  CEdipus  interpreted  the 
riddle,  and  became  king  of  Thebes  and  the  husband  of  Jocasta. 
Thus  the  oracle  was  fulfilled. 

Because  of  the  unwitting  crime,  a  terrible  doom  overhangs  the 
royal  house.  The  truth  finally  becomes  known.  Jocasta  hangs  her- 
self. CEdipus,  in  a  frenzy  of  agony,  tears  out  his  own  eyes.  His 
sons,  Eteocles,  and  Polynices  drive  him  from  Thebes,  and  upon 
them  he  invokes  the  curses  of  Heaven.  The  unhappy  king  is 
accompanied  in  his  exile  by  his  daughters  Antigone  and  Ismene. 

The  brothers  now  quarrel  respecting  the  throne.  Polynices  flees 
to  Argos,  and  seeks  aid  of  Adrastus,  king  of  that  city.  With  five 
chiefs  besides  himself  and  Polynices,  Adrastus  makes  war  upon 
Thebes.  All  the  heroes  except  Adrastus  are  killed  (if  we  may 
thus  speak  of  one,  Amphiaraus,  whom  the  opening  earth  received 

1  "  What  animal  walks  on  four  legs  in  the  morning,  on  two  at  noon,  and 
on  three  at  night?"  Answer:  man,  who  creeps  in  infancy,  walks  upright  in 
manhood,  and  supports  his  steps  with  a  staff  in  old  age. 


166  THE   LEGENDARY  OR  HEROIC  AGE. 

unharmed  into   the  world  of  shades),  while   the   two  unnatural 
brothers  also  fall,  each  by  the  hand  of  the  other. 

Kreon,  the  new  king  of  Thebes,  refuses  to  allow  Adrastus  to 
bury  or  burn  the  bodies  of  his  fallen  companions.  In  his  distress, 
Adrastus  supplicates  Theseus,  king  of  Athens,  to  avenge  the  wrong, 
—  for  a  denial  of  the  rites  of  sepulture  was  considered  by  the 
Greeks  a  most  impious  act.  Theseus  makes  war  upon  the  king  of 
Thebes,  overcomes  him,  and  secures  burial  honors  for  the  bodies 
of  the  slain  heroes. 

Ten  years  after  the  unsuccessful  attempt  of  the  seven  chieftains, 
the  sons  of  those  who  were  lost,  headed,  according  to  one  account, 
by  Adrastus,  and,  according  to  others,  by  Thersander,  the  son  of 
Polynices,  waged  a  second  war  against  Thebes,  to  avenge  the  death 
of  their  fathers.  They  took  the  city  and  destroyed  it.  This  ex- 
pedition was  known  as  the  War  of  the  Descendants  (Epigoni). 

This  legend  branches  out  into  a  hundred  tales,  which  form  the 
basis  of  many  of  the  greatest  productions  of  the  Greek  tragic 
poets. 

The  Trojan  War  (legendary  date  1194-1184  b.c). — The 
Trojan  War  was  an  event  about  which  gathered  a  great  circle  of 
tales  and  poems,  all  full  of  an  undying  interest  and  fascination. 
Homer,  in  his  great  epic  of  the  Iliad,  and  a  host  of  succeeding 
writers  called  the  cyclic  poets,  rehearsed,  with  a  charm  of  lan- 
guage and  beauty  of  imagery  never  surpassed,  the  feats  of  the 
struggling  heroes,  Greek  and  Trojan,  beneath  the  walls  of  Ilios. 

Ilios,  or  Troy,  was  the  capital  of  a  strong  empire,  represented 
as  Grecian  in  race  and  language,  which  had  grown  up  in  Asia 
Minor,  along  the  shores  of  the  Hellespont.  The  traditions  tell 
how  Paris,  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  visited  the  Spartan  king 
Menelaus,  and  ungenerously  requited  his  hospitality  by  secretly 
bearing  away  to  Troy  his  wife  Helen,  famous  for  her  rare  beauty. 

All  the  heroes  of  Greece  flew  to  arms  to  avenge  the  wrong.  A 
host  of  one  hundred  thousand  warriors  was  speedily  gathered. 
Agamemnon,  brother  of  Menelaus  and  "  king  of  men,"  was  chosen 
leader   of  the   expedition.     Under  him  were  the  "hon-hearted 


THE    TROJAN  WAR.  167 

Achilles,"  of  Thessaly,  the  "crafty  Ulysses"  (Odysseus),  king  of 
Ithaca,  Ajax,  "  the  swift  son  of  Oileus,"  the  Telemonian  Ajax,  the 
aged  Nestor,  and  many  more  —  the  most  valiant  heroes  of  all 
Hellas.  Twelve  hundred  galleys  bore  the  gathered  clans  from 
Aulis,  in  Greece,  across  the  y^gean  to  the  Trojan  shores. 

For  ten  years  the  Greeks  and  their  allies  hold  in  close  siege  the 
city  of  Priam.  The  Trojans  have  as  allies  many  of  the  states  of 
Asia  Minor,  as  well  as  warriors  from  more  remote  lands.  On  the 
plains  beneath  the  walls  of  the  capital,  the  warriors  of  the  two 
armies  fight  in  general  battle,  or  contend  in  single  encounter.  At 
first,  Achilles  is  foremost  in  every  fight ;  but  a  fair-faced  maiden, 
who  fell  to  him  as  a  prize,  having  been  taken  from  him  by  his 
chief,  Agamemnon,  he  is  filled  with  wrath,  and  sulks  in  his  tent. 
Though  the  Greeks  are  often  sorely  pressed,  still  the  angered  hero 
refuses  them  his  aid.  At  last,  however,  his  friend  Patroclus  is 
killed  by  Hector,  eldest  son  of  Priam,  and  then  xA-chilles  goes  forth 
to  avenge  his  death.  In  a  fierce  combat  he  slays  Hector,  fastens 
his  body  to  his  chariot  wheels,  and  drags  it  thrice  around  the  walls 
of  Troy. 

These  latter  events,  beginning  with  the  wrath  of  Achilles  and 
ending  with  the  funeral  rites  of  Patroclus  and  Hector,  form  the 
subject  of  the  Iliad  of  Homer. 

The  city  is  at  last  taken  through  a  device  of  the  "  crafty  Ulys- 
ses." Upon  the  plain  in  sight  of  the  walls  is  built  a  wooden  statue 
of  a  horse,  in  the  body  of  which  are  hidden  several  Grecian  war- 
riors. Then  the  Greeks  retire  to  their  ships,  as  though  about  to 
abandon  the  siege.  The  Trojans  issue  from  their  gates  and  gather 
in  wondering  crowds  about  the  image.  They  believe  it  to  be  an 
offering  sacred  to  Athena,  and  so  dare  not  destroy  it ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  misled  by  certain  omens  and  by  a  lying  Greek  named 
Sinon,  they  level  a  place  in  the  walls  of  their  city,  and  drag  the 
statue  within.  At  night  the  concealed  warriors  issue  from  the 
horse,  open  the  gates  of  the  city  to  the  Grecians,  and  Troy  is 
sacked  and  burned  to  the  ground.  The  aged  Priam  is  slain,  after 
having  seen  his  sons  and  many  of  his  warriors  perish  before  his 


168  THE  LEGENDARY  OR  HEROIC  AGE. 

face.  yEneas,  with  his  aged  father  Anchises,  and  a  few  devoted 
followers,  escapes,  and,  after  long  wanderings  by  land  and  by  sea, 
becomes  the  fabled  founder  of  the  Roman  race  in  Italy. 

It  is  a  matter  of  difficulty  to  point  out  the  nucleus  of  fact  in 
this  the  most  elaborate  and  interesting  of  the  Grecian  legends. 
Some  believe  it  to  be  the  dim  recollection  of  a  prehistoric  con- 
flict between  the  Greeks  and  the  natives  of  Asia  Minor,  arising 
from  the  attempt  of  the  former  to  secure  a  foothold  upon  the 
coast.  As,  at  the  time  of  the  composition  of  the  Iliad,  the  coast 
was  in  the  possession  of  Greeks,  the  Trojans  are  represented  as 
Greeks,  in  order  that  the  descriptions  may  correspond  to  the  then 
existing  state  of  things. 

That  there  really  existed  in  prehistoric  times  such  a  city  as 
Troy,  or  Ilios,  has  been  placed  beyond  doubt  by  the  excavations 
and  discoveries  of  Dr.  Schliemann.^ 

Return  of  the  Grecian  Chieftains.  —  After  the  fall  of  Troy,  the 
Grecian  chieftains  and  princes  returned  home.  The  poets  repre- 
sent the  gods  as  withdrawing  their  protection  from  the  hitherto 
favored  heroes,  because  they  had  not  spared  the  altars  of  the  Tro- 
jans. So,  many  of  them  were  driven  in  endless  wanderings  over 
sea  and  land.  Homer's  Odyssey  portrays  the  sufferings  of  the 
"  much-enduring  "  Ulysses,  impelled  by  divine  wrath  to  long  jour- 
neyings  through  strange  seas. 

In  some  cases,  according  to  the  tradition,  advantage  had  been 
taken  of  the  absence  of  the  princes,  and  their  thrones  had  been 
usurped.  Thus  at  Argos,  ^gisthus  had  won  the  unholy  love  of 
Clytemnestra,  wife  and  queen  of  Agamemnon,  who  on  his  return 
was  murdered  by  the  guilty  couple.  In  pleasing  contrast  with  this 
we  have  exhibited  to  us  the  constancy  of  Penelope,  although  sought 
by  many  suitors  during  the  absence  of  her  husband  Ulysses. 

The  Dorian  Invasion,  or  the  Return  of  the  Heraclidae  (leg- 
endary date  1 104  B.C.).  —  We  set  the  tradition  of  the  return  of 
the  Heraclidae  apart  from  the  legends  of  the  three  enterprises  just 
detailed,  for  the  reason  that  it  undoubtedly  contains  quite  a  large 

1  See  his  Ilios  and  Troja. 


THE  DORIAN  INVASION.  169 

historical  element.  It  seems  to  be  a  remembrance,  though  a  con- 
fused one,  of  a  real  migration  and  conquest,  and  of  a  resulting 
shifting  of  the  population  of  prehistoric  Greece. 

The  traditions  of  the  Greeks  tell  how  Heracles,  an  Achaean,  in 
the  times  before  the  Trojan  War,  ruled  over  the  Peloponnesian 
Achaeans.  Just  before  that  event  his  children  were  driven  from 
the  land.  Eighty  years  after  the  war,  the  hundred  years  of  exile 
appointed  by  the  fates  having  expired,  the  descendants  of  the 
hero,  at  the  head  of  the  Dorians  from  Northern  Greece,  returned, 
and  with  their  aid  effected  the  conquest  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  and  established  themselves  as  conquerors  and  mas- 
ters in  the  land  that  had  formerly  been  ruled  by  their  semi-divine 
ancestor. 

This  return  of  the  descendants  of  Heracles  to  the  land  of  their 
fathers  has  been  likened  to  the  return  of  the  children  of  Israel  to 
Palestine,  and  the  conquest  of  that  land  by  them  on  the  ground  of 
an  ancient  claim  to  the  country  through  their  ancestor  Abraham. 

The  nucleus  of  fact  in  this  legend  of  the  return  of  the  Hera- 
clidae,  as  we  have  already  said,  is  doubtless  a  prehistoric  invasion 
of  the  Peloponnesus  by  the  Dorians  from  the  north  of  Greece,  and 
the  expulsion  or  subjugation  of  the  native  inhabitants  of  the  penin- 
sula.    The  entire  movement  probably  occupied  several  centuries. 

The  Dorians  established  in  the  different  districts  of  which  they 
took  possession  aristocratic  and  military  governments,  and  devel- 
oped, generally,  social  and  political  systems  characterized  by 
austere  and  martial  discipHne. 

Towards  their  conquerors,  the  subjected  Achaeans  cherished  an 
inextinguishable  hatred,  save  in  some  parts  where  the  two  races 
appear  to  have  quietly  blended,  and  the  distinctive  relation  of 
conqueror  and  conquered  seems  to  have  been  almost  wholly  oblit- 
erated. Some  of  the  dispossessed  Achseans,  crowding  towards  the 
north  of  the  Peloponnesus,  drove  out  the  lonians  who  occupied 
the  southern  shore  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  and  settling  there,  gave 
the  name  Achaia  to  all  that  region. 

Arcadia,  in  the  center  of  the  Peloponnesus,  was  another  district 


170  THE   LEGENDARY  OR   HEROIC  AGE. 

which  did  not  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Dorians.  The  people 
here,  even  down  to  the  latest  times,  retained  their  primitive  cus- 
toms and  country  mode  of  life  ;  hence  Arcadian  came  to  mean 
rustic  and  artless. 

Migrations  to  Asia  Minor. — The  Greek  legends  represent  that 
the  Dorian  invasion  of  the  Peloponnesus  resulted  in  three  distinct 
migrations  from  the  mother  land  to  the  shores  of  Asia  Minor 
and  the  adjoining  islands. 

The  northwestern  shore  of  Asia  Minor  was  settled  by  ^olian 
emigrants  from  Boeotia,  among  whom  were  many  Achaean  refugees 
from  the  Peloponnesus.^  The  neighboring  island  of  Lesbos  became 
the  home  and  center  of  ^Eolian  culture  in  poetry  and  music. 

The  coast  to  the  south  of  the  y^olians  was  occupied  by  Ionian 
emigrants  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  who, 
uniting  with  their  Ionian  kinsmen  already  settled  upon  that  shore, 
built  up  twelve  splendid  cities  (Ephesus,  Miletus,  etc.),  which 
finally  united  to  form  the  celebrated  Ionian  confederacy. 

South  of  the  lonians,  all  along  the  southwestern  shore  of  Asia 
Minor,  the  Dorians  established  their  colonies.  They  also  settled 
the  important  islands  of  Cos  and  Rhodes,  and  conquered  and 
colonized  Crete. 

The  traditions  relating  to  these  various  settlements  represent 
them  as  having  been  effected  in  a  very  short  period ;  but  it  is 
probable  that  the  movement  embraced  several  centuries,  —  possi- 
bly a  longer  time  than  has  been  occupied  by  the  English  race  in 
colonizing  the  different  lands  of  the  Western  World. 

With  the  migrations  of  the  ^Eolians,  lonians,  and  Dorians  to  the 
Asiatic  shores,  the  Legendary  Age  of  Greece  comes  to  an  end. 
From  this  time  forward  we  tread  upon  fairly  firm  historic  ground. 

1  Curtius  believes  that  the  struggle  which  must  inevitably  have  arisen 
between  these  emigrants  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  Asiatic  coast  may  have 
been  the  basis  of  the  story  of  the  Trojan  War.  "  We  are  justified,"  he  says, 
"  in  transferring  this  war  out  of  its  isolation,  in  which  it  remains  incomprehen- 
sible, into  a  wider  connection  of  events,  and  out  of  the  poetic  times,  whither 
it  was  carried  by  song,  into  its  actual  period." 


SOCIETY  IN   THE  HEROIC  AGE.  171 

Society  in  the  Heroic  Age.  —  While  it  is  true  that  the  legend- 
ary stories  and  poems  of  the  Greeks  cannot  be  received  as  reliable 
accounts  of  real  events,  still  they  may  be  regarded  as  reflecting 
with  very  great  accuracy  the  manners,  customs,  and  general  cul- 
ture of  the  time  in  which  they  had  their  origin.  The  poems  of 
Homer,  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey,  which  were  composed  proba- 
bly as  early  as  the  eighth  or  ninth  century  B.C.,  are  the  chief 
sources  whence  are  drawn  the  materials  from  which  historians 
venture  to  form  a  picture  of  Greek  society  in  the  Heroic  Age.  It 
remains  for  us  to  add  a  few  words  upon  this  subject  to  complete 
our  sketch  of  legendary  Greece. 

In  Homeric  times  the  Greeks  were  ruled  by  hereditary  kings, 
who  were  believed  to  be  of  divine  or  superhuman  hneage.  The 
king  was  at  once  the  lawgiver,  the  judge,  and  the  military  leader 
of  his  people.  He  was  expected  to  prove  his  divine  right  to  rule, 
by  his  courage,  strength,  wisdom,  and  eloquence.  When  he  ceased 
to  display  these  qualities,  "  the  sceptre  departed  from  him." 

The  king  was  surrounded  by  a  council  {boule)  of  chiefs  or 
nobles.  This  council,  however,  was  simply  an  advisory  body. 
The  king  listened  to  what  the  nobles  had  to  say  upon  any  meas- 
ure he  might  propose,  and  then  acted  according  to  his  own  will 
or  judgment,  restrained  only  by  the  time-honored  customs  of  the 
community. 

Next  to  the  council  of  the  chiefs,  there  was  a  general  assembly, 
called  the  Agora,  made  up  of  all  the  common  freemen.  The 
members  of  this  body  could  not  take  part  in  any  debate,  nor 
could  they  vote  upon  any  question.  They  were  called  together 
to  hear  matters  discussed  by  the  king  and  his  chiefs,  that  they 
might  know  what  was  resolved  upon,  and  perhaps  learn  the  argu- 
ments for  and  against  the  resolution.  This  body,  so  devoid  seem- 
ingly of  all  authority  in  the  Homeric  age,  was  destined  to  become 
the  all-powerful  popular  assembly  in  the  democratic  cities  of  his- 
toric Greece. 

Of  the  condition  of  the  common  freemen  we  know  but  little  : 
the  legendary  tales  were   concerned   chiefly  with   the   kings  and 


172  THE  LEGENDARY  OR   HEROIC  AGE. 

nobles.  We  are  certain,  however,  that  the  well-to-do  class 
owned  their  farms,  and  cultivated  them  with  their  own  hands ; 
and  that  the  poorer  class  labored  for  hire  on  the  estates  of  the 
nobles.  Slavery  existed,  but  the  slaves  did  not  constitute  as 
numerous  a  class  as  they  became  in  historic  times,  nor  do  they 
seem  in  general  to  have  been  treated  harshly. 

In  the  family,  the  wife  holds  a  much  more  dignified  and  honored 
position  than  she  occupied  in  later  times.  The  charming  story  of 
the  constant  Penelope,  which  we  find  in  the  Odyssey,  assures  us 
that  the  Homeric  age  cherished  a  chivalric  feeling  for  woman. 

In  all  ranks  of  society  life  was  marked  by  a  sort  of  patriarchal 
simplicity.  Manual  labor  was  not  yet  thought  to  be  degrading. 
Ulysses  constructs  his  own  house  and  raft,  and  boasts  of  his  skill 
in  swinging  the  scythe  and  guiding  the  plow.  Spinning  and  weav- 
ing were  the  chief  occupation  of  the  women  of  all  classes. 

One  pleasing  and  prominent  virtue  of  the  age  was  hospitality. 
There  were  no  public  inns  in  those  times,  hence  a  sort  of  gentle 
necessity  forced  to  the  entertainment  of  wayfarers.  The  hospi- 
tality accorded  was  the  same  free  and  impulsive  welcome  that  the 
Arab  sheik  of  to-day  extends  to  the  traveller  whom  chance  brings 
to  his  tent.  The  belief,  too,  that  the  gods  sometimes  visited  the 
earth  in  the  guise  of  men  also  prompted,  in  early  times,  the 
kindly  reception  of  strangers,  since  thereby  angels  might  haply  be 
entertained  unawares.  The  very  best  the  house  afforded  was  set 
before  the  wayfarer,  and  not  till  he  had  refreshed  himself  was  he 
asked  as  to  his  journey  and  its  object.  When  thus  by  chance  a  per- 
son, even  though  of  another  race,  became  the  guest  of  a  Greek, 
this  circumstance  made  him,  as  it  were,  a  kinsman,  and  henceforth 
a  new  relation  subsisted  between  those  thus  casually  brought  to- 
gether. One  seeking  a  favor  of  another  might  claim  that  their 
ancestors  had  broken  bread  together,  and  the  appeal  was  sacred, 
and  seldom  made  in  vain. 

But  while  hospitable,  the  nobles  of  the  heroic  age  were  often 
cruel,  violent,  and  treacherous.  Homer  represents  his  heroes  as 
committing  without   a    blush   all  sorts   of    frauds    and   villanies. 


SOCIETY  IN   THE  HEROIC  AGE.  173 

Piracy  was  considered  an  honorable  occupation.  ''  It  was  cus- 
tomary in  welcoming  a  stranger  to  ask  him  whether  his  object  in 
travelHng  was  to  enrich  himself  by  piracy,  just  as  we  might  to-day 
ask  a  person  whether  his  object  be  to  enrich  himself  by  mercantile 
speculation." 

Art  and  architecture  were  in  a  rudimentary  state.  Yet  some 
advance  had  been  made.  The  cities  were  walled,  and  the  pal- 
aces of  the  kings  possessed  a  certain  barbaric  splendor.  Coined 
money  was  unknown ;  wealth  was  reckoned  chiefly  in  flocks  and 
herds,  and  in  uncoined  metals.  The  art  of  writing  was  probably 
unknown,  at  least  there  is  no  certain  mention  of  it ;  and  sculpture 
could  not  have  been  in  an  advanced  state,  as  the  Homeric  poems 
make  no  mention  of  statues.  Commerce  was  yet  in  its  infancy. 
Although  the  Greeks  were  to  become  a  great  maritime  people, 
still  in  the  Homeric  age  they  had  evidently  explored  the  sea  but 
little.  The  Phoenicians  then  ruled  the  waves,  and  were  the  inter- 
mediaries of  the  Mediterranean  world.  The  Greeks  in  those  early 
times  knew  but  little  of  the  world  beyond  Greece  proper  and  the 
neighboring  islands  and  shores.  Scarcely  an  echo  of  the  din  of 
life  from  the  then  ancient  and  mighty  cities  of  Egypt  and  Chaldaea 
seems  to  have  reached  their  ears. 


174  RELIGION  OF   THE    GREEKS. 


CHAPTER    III. 

RELIGION   OF  THE   GREEKS. 

Introductory.  —  Without  at  least  some  little  knowledge  of  the 
religious  ideas  and  institutions  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  we  should 
find  very  many  passages  of  their  history  wholly  unintelligible. 
Hence  a  few  remarks  in  regard  to  these  matters  will  be  here  in 
place.  We  shall  begin  with  a  word  respecting  the  cosmography 
of  the  Greeks,  or  their  ideas  of  the  figure  and  relation  of  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  universe. 

Cosmography  of  the  Greeks.  —  The  Greeks  supposed  the  earth 
to  be,  as  it  appears,  a  plane,  round  in  form  like  a  shield.  Around 
it  flowed  the  "  mighty  strength  of  the  ocean  river,"  a  stream  broad 
and  deep,  beyond  which  on  all  sides  lay  realms  of  Cimmerian 
darkness  and  terror.  From  this  encircling  ocean  stream,  all  the 
rivers  and  seas  of  the  earth  drew  their  waters.  The  heavens  were 
a  solid  vault,  or  dome,  whose  edge  shut  down  close  upon  the  earth. 

Beneath  the  earth,  reached  by  subterranean  passages,  was 
Hades,  a  vast  region,  the  realm  of  departed  shades.  Still  beneath 
this  was  Tartarus,  a  pit  deep  and  dark,  made  fast  by  strong  gates 
of  brass  and  iron.  This  awful  prison-house  of  the  Titans  was  as  far 
beneath  the  earth  as  the  heavens  were  above  ;  and  of  the  latter 
distance  we  are  left  to  conjecture  from  the  fact  that  when  Zeus,  in 
a  fit  of  anger,  hurled  Hephaestus  from  the  heavens  to  earth,  he 
fell  "from  morn  to  noon,  from  noon  to  dewy  eve."  Sometimes 
the  poets  represent  the  gloomy  regions  beyond  the  oce"an  stream, 
as  the  cheerless  abode  of  the  dead.^ 

1  These  conceptions  belong  to  the  early  period  of  Greek  mythology.  Later, 
when  the  geographical  ideas  of  the  Greeks  had  become  more  expanded,  and 
their  moral  feelings  had  grown  stronger,  the  topography  of  the  under-world 


THE    OLYMPIAN  COUNCIL.  175 

The  sun  v/as  an  archer-god,  borne  in  a  fiery  chariot  up  and 
down  the  steep  pathway  of  the  skies.  Awaiting  the  god  in  the 
west,  on  the  ocean  stream,  was  a  winged  couch,  in  which  he  sank 
to  rest  while  gentle  winds  wafted  the  golden  vessel  over  the  waters 
round  to  the  east,  where  a  new  chariot  and  fresh  steeds  awaited 
him.  Naturally  it  was  imagined  that  the  regions  in  the  extreme 
east  and  west,  which  were  bathed  in  the  near  splendors  of  the  sun- 
rise and  the  sunset,  were  lands  of  delight  and  plenty.  The  east- 
ern was  the  favored  country  of  the  Ethiopians,  a  land  which  even 
Zeus  himself  so  loved  to  visit  that  often  he  was  found  absent  from 
Olympus  when  sought  by  suppliants.  The  western  region,  ad- 
joining the  ocean  stream,  was  the  delightful  Garden  of  the  Hes- 
perides.  Here,  too,  were  the  Islands  of  the  Blest  (Elysium),  the 
abodes  of  the  shades  of  heroes  and  poets. 

The  Olympian  Council.  —  There  were  twelve  members  of  the 
celestial  council,  six  gods  and  as  many  goddesses.  The  male 
deities  were  Zeus,  the  father  and  ruler  of  gods  and  men,  and  the 
wielder  of  the  thunderbolts ;  Poseidon,  ruler  of  the  sea ;  Apollo, 
or  Phcebus,  the  god  of  light,  of  music,  of  healing,  of  poetry,  and 
of  prophecy ;  Ares,  the  god  of  war ;  Hephaestus,  the  deformed 
god  of  fire,  and  the  patron  of  the  useful  arts  dependent  upon  it, 
the  forger  of  the  thunderbolts  of  Zeus,  and  the  fashioner  of  arms 
and  of  all  sorts  of  metal  work  for  the  heroes  and  the  gods,; 
Hermes,  the  wing-footed  herald  of  the  celestials^  the  god  of 
invention  and  of  commerce,  himself  a  thief  and  the  patron  of 
thieves. 

The  female  divinities  were  Hera,  the  proud  and  rightly  jealous 
queen  of  Zeus  ;  Athena,  or  Pallas,  —  who  sprang  full-grown  from 

was  considerably  modified.  Hades  (at  first  called  Erebus)  was  now  con- 
ceived as  consisting  of  two  vast  regions,  Tartarus  and  Elysium,  the  former 
having  been  brought  up  from  beneath  and  made  the  place  of  punishrtient  for 
the  souls  of  evil  men,  and  the  latter  having  been  taken  down  from  the  western 
region  of  the  earth  (see  above),  and  made  the  happy  abode  of  all  the  right- 
eous. See  Keightley's  Mythology  of  Ajicient  Greece  and  Italy,  pp.  So,  Si, 
fourth  edition. 


176  RELIGION  OF   THE    GREEKS. 

the  forehead  of  Zeus,  —  the  goddess  of  wisdom,  and  the  patroness 
of  the  domestic  arts ;  Artemis,  the  goddess  of  the  chase ;  Aphro- 
dite, the  goddess  of  love  and  beauty,  born  of  the  sea-foam ;  Hes- 
tia,  the  goddess  of  the  hearth ;  Demeter,  the  earth-mother,  the 
goddess  of  grains  and  han^ests.^ 

Lesser  Deities  and  Monsters.  —  Besides  the  great  gods  and 
goddesses  that  constituted  the  Olympian  Council,  there  was  an 
almost  infinite  number  of  other  deities,  celestial  personages,  and 
monsters  neither  human  nor  divine. 

Hades  (Pluto)  ruled  over  the  lower  realms  ;  Dionysus  (Bac- 
chus) was  the  god  of  wine  ;  Eros  (Cupid),  of  love;  Iris  was  the 
goddess  of  the  rainbow,  and  the  special  messenger  of  Zeus  ;  Hebe 
(goddess)  was  the  cupbearer  of  the  celestials;  the  goddess 
Nemesis  was  the  punisher  of  crime,  and  particularly  the  queller  of 
the  proud  and  arrogant ;  yEolus  was  the  ruler  of  the  winds,  which 
he  confined  in  a  cave  secured  by  mighty  gates. 

There  were  nine  Muses,  inspirers  of  art  and  song.  The 
Nymphs  (Naiads,  Nereids,  Dryads,  Hamadryads,  etc.)  were  beau- 
tiful maidens,  who  peopled  the  woods,  the  fields,  the  rivers,  the 
lakes,  and  the  ocean.  Three  Fates  allotted  life  and  death,  and 
three  Furies  (Eumenides,  or  Erinnyes)  avenged  crime,  especially 
murder  and  unnatural  crimes.  The  Harpies  were  terrible  mon- 
sters with  female  faces  and  the  bodies  and  claws  of  birds.  They 
were  sisters,  three  in  number,  and  lived  on  the  Strophades,  in  the 
Ionian  Sea.  They  tore  and  devoured  their  prey  with  greedy 
voracity.  The  Gorgons  were  also  three  sisters,  with  hair  entwined 
with  serpents.     A  single  gaze  upon  them  chilled  the  beholder  to 

1  The  Latin  names  of  these  divinities  are  as  follows :  Zeus  =  Jupiter  ; 
Poseidon  =  Neptune  ;  Apollo  =  Apollo  ;  Ares  —  Mars;  Hephaestus  =  Vulcan; 
Hermes  =  Mercury  ;  Hera  =  Juno;  Athena  =  Minerva  ;  Artemis  =  Diana; 
Aphrodite  =  Venus  ;    Hestia  =  Vesta  ;    Demeter  =  Ceres. 

These  Latin  names,  however,  are  not  the  equivalents  of  the  Greek  names, 
and  should  not  be  used  as  such.  The  mythologies  of  the  Hellenes  and 
Romans  were  as  distinct  as  their  languages.  Consult  Rawlinson's  Religions 
of  the  Ancient  World. 


EXPLANATION   OF   THE  MYTHOLOGICAL   MONSTERS.    Yll 

Stone.  The  Chimaera  was  a  monster  with  "  the  head  of  a  hon,  the 
body  of  a  goat,  and  the  tail  of  a  serpent,  and  vomited  forth  fire." 
(From  this  impossible  monster  we  have  come  to  call  any  improba- 
ble thing  a  "chimera.")  Besides  these  there  were  the  Dragon, 
which  guarded  the  golden  apples  of  the  Hesperides  ;  Cerberus, 
the  watch-dog  of  Hades  ;  Scylla  and  Charybdis,  sea-monsters  that 
made  perilous  the  passage  of  the  Sicilian  Straits ;  the  Centaurs, 
the  Cyclops,  the  Sphinx,  and  a  thousand  others. 

Explanations  of  the  Mythological  Monsters.  —  Many  at  least 
of  these  monsters  were  simply  personifications  of  the  human  pas- 
sions or  of  the  malign  and  destructive  powers  of  nature.  Thus, 
according  to  some  interpreters,  the  Furies  were  the  embodiment 
of  an  aroused  and  accusing  conscience ;  the  Harpies  were  the 
swift  storms,  that  tear  to  pieces  and  ingulf  the  vessel  of  the  mari- 
ner ;  the  Gorgons  were  also  tempests,  which  lash  the  sea  into  a  fury 
that  paralyzes  the  affrighted  sailor ;  the  Chimaera  was  a  volcano 
in  Lycia,  whose  foot  and  slopes  abounded  in  different  animals 
(the  Chimaera  flame  is  still  seen  issuing  from  a  mountain  oppo- 
site Olympus)  ;  Scylla  and  Charybdis  were  dangerous  whirlpools 
off  the  coast  of  Sicily. 

The  fact  that  these  monsters  were  merely  personifications  of 
human  feelings  or  of  the  evil  and  terrifying  powers  or  aspects  of 
nature  was,  indeed,  forgotten,  or  not  understood  at  all,  by  the  com- 
mon people ;  they  beHeved  them  to  be  real  creatures,  with  all  the 
parts  and  habits  given  them  by  the  poets,  —  and  often  the  poets 
themselv^es  seemed  possessed  of  the  same  idea. 

Nature  of  the  Gods.  —  The  great  gods  and  goddesses  were 
simply  magnified  human  beings,  possessing  all  their  virtues,  and 
often  their  weaknesses.  They  give  way  to  fits  of  anger  and  jeal- 
ousy. "  Zeus  deceives,  and  Hera  (Juno)  is  constantly  practising 
her  wiles."  All  the  celestial  council,  at  the  sight  of  Hephaestus 
limping  across  the  palace  floor,  burst  into  "inextinguishable  laugh- 
ter"; and  Aphrodite,  weeping,  moves  all  to  tears.  They  surpass 
mortals  rather  in  power,  than  in  size  of  body.  They  can  render 
themselves  visible  or  invisible  to  human  eyes.     Their  food  is  am- 


178  RELIGION   OF   THE    GREEKS. 

brosia  and  nectar ;  their  movements  are  swift  as  light.  They  may 
suffer  pain ;  but  death  can  never  come  to  them,  for  they  are  im- 
mortal. Their  abode  is  Mount  Olympus  and  the  airy  regions 
above  the  earth. 

Modes  of  Divine  Communication.  —  In  the  early  ages  the  gods 
were  wont,  it  was  believed,  to  visit  the  earth  and  mingle  with  men. 
But  even  in  Homer's  time  this  familiar  intercourse  was  a  thing  of 
the  past  —  a  tradition  of  a  golden  age  that  had  passed  away.  Their 
forms  were  no  longer  seen,  their  voices  no  longer  heard.  In  these 
later  and  more  degenerate  times  the  recognized  modes  of  divine 
communication  with  men  were  by  oracles,  and  by  casual  and  un- 
usual sights  and  sounds,  as  thunder  and  lightning,  a  sudden 
tempest,  an  eclipse,  a  flight  of  birds,  —  particularly  of  birds  that 
mount  to  a  great  height,  as  these  were  supposed  to  know  the 
secrets  of  the  heavens,  —  the  appearance  or  action  of  the  sacri- 
ficial victims,  or  any  strange  coincidence. 

The  art  of  interpreting  these  signs  or  omens  was  called  the  art 
of  divination.  It  is  probable  that  this  art  was  introduced  into 
Greece  from  Chaldaea  by  the  way  of  Egypt  and  the  coast  coun- 
tries of  Asia  Minor. 

Oracles.  —  But  though  the  gods  often  revealed  their  will  and 
intentions  through  signs  and  portents,  still  they  granted  a  more 
special  communication  of  counsel  through  what  were  known  as 
oi'acles}  These  communications,  it  was  believed,  were  made  by 
Zeus,  and  especially  by  Apollo,  who  was  the  god  of  prophecy,  the 
Revealer. 

Not  everywhere,  but  only  in  chosen  places,  did  these  gods 
manifest  their  presence  and  communicate  the  divine  will.     These 

1  We  should  perhaps  add  that  prophets  were  not  unknown  among  the 
Greeks.  These  were  persons  who,  Uke  the  Hebrew  prophets,  were  believed 
to  have  a  supernatural  insight  into  the  future.  Sometimes  this  gift  was  hered- 
itary, and  then  a  family  or  house  came  to  be  regarded  as  set  apart  from  ordi- 
nary men.  Among  the  most  noted  of  the  Greek  prophets  were  Tiresias,  the 
blind  soothsayer  of  Thebes,  and  Calchas,  the  adviser  of  the  Grecians  at  the 
siege  of  Troy. 


ORACLES.  179 

favored  spots  were  called  oracles,  as  were  also  the  responses  there 
received.  There  were  twenty-two  oracles  of  Apollo  in  different 
parts  of  the  Grecian  world,  but  a  much  smaller  number  of  those 
of  Zeus.  These  were  usually  situated  in  wild  and  desolate  spots 
—  in  dark  forests  or  among  gloomy  mountains. 

The  most  renowned  of  the  oracles  were  that  of  the  Pelasgian 
Zeus  at  Dodona,  in  Epirus,  and  that  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  in 
Phocis.  At  Dodona  the  priests  listened  in  the  dark  forests  for  the 
voice  of  Zeus  in  the  rustling  leaves  of  the  sacred  oak.  At  Delphi 
there  was  a  deep  fissure  in  the  ground,  which  emitted  stupefying 
vapors,  that  were  thought  to  be  the  inspiring  breath  of  Apollo. 
Over  the  spot  was  erected  a  splendid  temple,  in  honor  of  the 
oracle.  The  revelation  was  generally  received  by  the  Pythia,  or 
priestess,^  seated  upon  a  tripod  placed  over  the  orifice.  As  she 
became  overpowered  by  the  influence  of  the  prophetic  exhala- 
tions, she  uttered  the  message  of  the  god.  These  mutterings  of 
the  Pythia  were  taken  down  by  attendant  priests,  interpreted,  and 
written  in  hexameter  verse.  Sometimes  the  will  of  Zeus  was 
communicated  to  the  pious  seeker  by  dreams  and  visions  granted 
to  him  while  sleeping  in  the  temple  of  the  oracle. 

The  oracle  of  Delphi  gained  a  celebrity  wide  as  the  world  :  it 
was  often  consulted  by  the  monarchs  of  Asia  and  the  people  of 
Rome  in  time  of  extreme  danger  and  perplexity.  Among  the 
Greeks  scarcely  any  undertaking  was  entered  upon  without  the 
will  and  sanction  of  the  oracle  being  first  sought. 

Especially  true  was  this  in  the  founding  of  colonies.  Apollo 
was  believed  "to  take  delight  in  the  foundation  of  new  cities." 
No  colony  could  prosper  that  had  not  been  established  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  Delphian  god.^ 

1  "  Apollo  speaks  through  the  mouth  of  feeble  girls  and  women,  as  a  sign 
that  it  is  no  human  wisdom  and  art  which  reveals  the  divine  will."  —  Curtius. 

2  The  priests  of  the  sanctuary  kept  themselves  perfectly  informed  respect- 
ing the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  thus  were  able  intelli- 
gently to  direct  these  great  undertakings.  It  was  in  its  superintendence  of 
Greek  colonization  that,  in  the  estimation  of  Curtius,  the  Delphian  oracle 
rendered  its  greatest  and  most  permanent  service  to  civilization. 


180  RELIGION'  OF   THE    GREEKS. 

Some  of  the  responses  of  the  oracle  contained  plain  and  whole- 
some advice  ;  but  very  many  of  them,  particularly  those  that 
implied  a  knowledge  of  the  future,  were  obscure  and  ingeniously 
ambiguous,  so  that  they  might  correspond  with  the  event  however. 
affairs  should  turn,  and  thus  the  credit  of  the  oracle  be  unim- 
paired. Thus,  Croesus  is  told  that,  if  he  undertake  his  expedition 
against  Persia,  he  will  destroy  a  great  empire.  He  did,  indeed ; 
—  but  the  empire  was  his  own.  Again,  the  Spartans,  seeking  to 
know  whether  they  will  be  successful  in  a  contemplated  war  against 
the  Athenians,  are  told  that  they  "  will  gain  the  victory,  if  they 
will  fight  with  all  their  might." 

While  it  doubtless  is  true  that  the  oracles  owed  their  origin  to 
a  misinterpretation  —  by  an  age  entertaining  childlike  conceptions 
of  the  divine  government  of  the  world  —  of  certain  psychical 
phenomena,  such  as  those  upon  which  modern  spiritualism  is 
based,  still  they  in  a  great  measure  owed  their  perpetuation,  as 
has  already  been  intimated,  to  deceit  and  fraud.  The  priestly 
colleges  that  controlled  the  sanctuaries  became  corrupt,  and  sold 
their  influence  to  designing  politicians,  who  by  bribes  secured  such 
responses  as  would  further  their  ends. 

The  Delphian  oracle  was  at  the  height  of  its  fame  before  the 
Persian  War ;  in  that  crisis  it  did  not  take  a  bold  or  patriotic 
stand,  and  its  reputation  was  sensibly  impaired. 

Ideas  of  the  Future.  —  To  the  Greeks  life  was  so  bright  and 
joyous  a  thing  that  they  looked  upon  death  as  a  great  calamity. 
They  therefore  pictured  life  after  death,  except  in  the  case  of  a 
favored  few,  as  being  hopeless  and  aimless.^  The  Elysian  Fields, 
away  in  the  land  of  sunset,  were,  indeed,  filled  with  every  delight ; 
but  these  were  the  abode  only  of  the  great  heroes  and  benefactors 
of  the  race.     The  great  mass  of  mankind  were  doomed  to  Hades, 

1  Homer  makes  the  shade  of  the  great  Achilles  in  Hades  to  say :  — 

"  I  would  be 
A  laborer  on  earth,  and  serve  for  hire 
Some  man  of  mean  estate,  who  makes  scant  cheer. 
Rather  than  reign  o'er  all  who  have  gone  down 
To  death."—  (9^.  XI.  489-90  [Bryant's  Trans.]. 


THE   SACRED    GAMES.  181 

where  the  spirit  existed  as  "  a  feeble,  joyless  phantom."  While 
we  believe  that  the  soul,  freed  from  the  body  by  the  event  of 
death,  becomes  stronger  and  more  active,  the  Greeks  thought 
that  without  the  body  it  became  but  a  feeble  image  of  its  former 
self.  So  long  as  the  body  remained  unburied,  the  shade  wan- 
dered restless  in  Hades ;  hence  the  sacredness  of  the  rites  of 
sepulture. 

The  Sacred  Games. — The  celebrated  games  of  the  Greeks  had 
their  origin  in  the  belief  of  their  Aryan  ancestors  that  the  shades 
of  the  dead  were  gratified  or  appeased  by  such  spectacles  as  de- 
lighted them  during  their  earthly  life.  During  the  Heroic  Age 
these  festivals  were  simply  sacrifices  or  games  performed  at  the 
tomb,  or  about  the  pyre  of  the  dead.  Gradually  these  grew  into 
religious  festivals  observed  by  an  entire  city  or  community,  and 
were  celebrated  near  the  oracle  or  shrine  of  the  god  in,  whose 
honor  they  were  instituted  ;  the  idea  now  being  that  the  gods  were 
present  at  the  festival,  and  took  delight  in  the  various  contests  and 
exercises.  It  was  this  sentiment  and  belief  of  the  Greeks  which 
lent  such  sanctity  and  importance  to  these  festivals. 

By  the  sixth  century  B.C.  they  had  lost  their  local  and  assumed 
a  national  character.  Among  these  festivals,  four  acquired  a 
world-wide  celebrity.  These  were  the  Olympian,  celebrated  in 
honor  of  Zeus,  at  Olympia,  in  the  Peloponnesus ;  the  Pythian,  in 
honor  of  Apollo,  near  his  shrine  and  oracle  at  Delphi ;  the 
Nemean,  in  honor  of  Zeus,  at  Nemea;  and  the  Isthmian,  held  in 
honor  of  Poseidon,  on  the  narrow  isthmus  of  Corinth. 

The  Olympian  Games.  —  Of  these  four  national  festivals  the 
Olympian  secured  the  greatest  renown.  In  776  B.C.  Coroebus  was 
victor  in  the  foot-race  at  Olympia,  and  as  from  that  time  the 
names  of  the  victors  were  carefully  registered,  that  year  came  to 
be  used  by  the  Greeks  as  the  starting-point  in  their  chronology. 
The  games  were  held  every  fourth  year,  and  the  intervals  between 
two  successive  festivals  was  known  as  an  Olympiad.  The  date  of 
an  occurrence  was  given  by  saying  that  it  happened  in  the  first, 
second,  third,  or  fourth  year  of  such  an  Olympiad  —  the  first, 
second,  or  third,  etc. 


182  RELIGION  OF  THE    GREEKS, 

The  contests  consisted  of  foot-races,  boxing,  wrestling,  and 
other  athletic  games.  Later,  chariot-racing  was  introduced,  and 
became  the  most  popular  of  all  the  contests.  The  competitors 
must  be  of  the  Hellenic  race ;  must  have  undergone  ten  months' 
training  in  the  gymnasium  ;  and  must,  moreover,  be  unblemished 
by  any  crime  against  the  state  or  sin  against  the  gods.  Specta- 
tors from  all  parts  of  the  world  crowded  to  the  festival.  The 
deputies  of  the  different  states  vied  with  one  another  in  the  rich- 
ness and  splendor  of  their  chariots  and  equipments,  and  in  the 
magnificence  of  their  retinues. 

The  victor  was  crowned  with  a  garland  of  wild  olives ;  heralds 
proclaimed  his  name  abroad;  his  native  city  received  him  as  a 
conqueror,  sometimes  through  a  breach  made  in  the  city  walls ; 
his  statues,  executed  by  eminent  artists,  were  erected  at  Olympia 
and  in  his  own  city ;  sometimes  even  divine  honor  and  worship 
were  accorded  to  him ;  and  poets  and  orators  vied  with  the  artist 
in  perpetuating  the  name  and  deeds  of  him  who  had  reflected 
undying  honor  upon  his  native  state. 

Influence  of  the  Grecian  Games.  —  For  more  than  a  thousand 
years  these  national  festivals  exerted  an  immense  influence  upon 
the  social,  religious,  and  literary  life  of  Hellas.  They  enkindled 
among  the  widely  scattered  Hellenic  states  and  colonies  a  com- 
mon literary  taste  and  enthusiasm ;  for  into  all  the  four  great 
festivals,  excepting  the  Olympian,  were  introduced,  sooner  or  later, 
contests  in  poetry,  oratory,  and  history.  During  the  festivals, 
poets  and  historians  read  their  choicest  productions,  and  artists 
exhibited  their  masterpieces.  The  extraordinary  honors  accorded 
to  the  victors  stimulated  the  contestants  to  the  utmost,  and  strung 
to  the  highest  tension  every  power  of  body  and  mind.  To  this 
fact  we  owe  some  of  the  grandest  productions  of  the  Greek  race. 

They  moreover  promoted  intercourse  and  trade ;  for  the  festi- 
vals naturally  became  great  centres  of  traffic  and  exchange  during 
the  continuance  of  the  games.  They  softened,  too,  the  manners 
of  the  people,  turning  their  thoughts  from  martial  exploits  and 
giving  the  states  respite  from  war ;  for  during  the  month  in  which 


THE  AMPHICTYONIC   COUNCIL.  183 

the  religious  games  were  held  it  was  sacrilegious  to  engage  in 
military  expeditions. 

They  also  promoted  intercourse  between  the  different  Grecian 
cities,  or  states,  and  kept  alive  common  Hellenic  feelings  and  sen- 
timents. In  all  these  ways,  though  they  never  drew  the  states 
into  a  common  political  union,  still  they  did  impress  a  common 
character  upon  their  social,  intellectual,  and  rehgious  life. 

The  AmpMctyonic  Council.  —  Closely  connected  with  the  relig- 
ious festivals  were  the  so-called  Amphictyonies,  or  "leagues  of 
neighbors."  These  were  associations  of  a  number  of  cities  or 
tribes  for  the  celebration  of  religious  rites  at  some  shrine,  or  for 
the  protection  of  some  particular  temple. 

Pre-eminent  among  all  such  unions  was  that  known  as  the 
Delphic  Amphictyony,  or  simply  The  Amphictyony.  This  was  a 
league  of  twelve  of  the  sub- tribes  of  Hellas,  whose  main  object 
was  the  protection  of  the  Temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi.  Another 
of  its  purposes  was,  by  humane  regulations,  to  mitigate  the  cruel- 
ties of  war.  This  was  one  of  the  first  steps  taken  in  the  practice 
of  international  law.  The  following  oath  was  taken  by  the 
members  of  the  league  :  "  We  will  not  destroy  any  Amphictyonic 
town,  nor  cut  it  off  from  running  water,  in  war  or  in  peace ;  if  any 
one  shall  do  so,  we  will  march  against  him  and  destroy  his  city. 
If  any  one  shall  plunder  the  property  of  the  god,  or  shall  be  cog- 
nizant thereof,  or  shall  take  treacherous  counsel  against  the  things 
in  his  temple  at  Delphi,  we  will  punish  him  with  foot  and  hand 
and  voice,  and  by  every  means  in  our  power." 

Another  duty  of  the  Amphictyonic  tribes  was  to  keep  in  repair 
the  roads  leading  to  the  Delphian  sanctuary.  These  were  carefully 
levelled,  and  in  rocky  places  smooth  grooves  of  uniform  gauge  ^  were 
cut  for  the  wheels  of  the  chariots  and  gayly  decorated  cars  which 
went  up  in  a  sort  of  festival  procession  to  the  games. 

The  so-called  First  Sacred  War  was  a  crusade  of  ten  years  car- 

^  "  Throughout  the  territories  of  the  Amphictyons  in  Central  Greece  and  the 
Peloponnesus,  these  tracks  had  a  uniform  width  of  five  feet  and  four  inches." 

—  CURTIUS. 


184  RELIGION  OF  THE    GREEKS. 

ried  on  by  the  Amphictyons  against  the  cities  of  Crissa  and  Cirrha 
for  their  robbery  of  the  treasures  of  the  Delj^hian  temple.  The 
cities  were  finally  taken,  levelled  to  the  ground,  and  the  wrath  of 
the  gods  invoked  upon  any  one  who  should  dare  to  rebuild  them. 
This  contest  occurred  in  the  first  part  of  the  sixth  century  B.C. 
(600-590).  The  spoils  of  the  war  were  devoted  to  the  establish- 
ment of  musical  contests  in  honor  of  the  Delphian  Apollo.  Thus 
originated  the  renowned  Pythian  festivals,  to  which  allusion  has 
already  been  made  (see  p.  181). 

Doctrine  of  the  Divine  Jealousy.  —  One  notion  which  the 
Greeks  entertained  concerning  their  gods  colored  so  deeply  all 
their  conceptions  of  life  that  we  must  not  fail  to  make  mention  of 
it  here. 

They  were  impressed,  as  all  peoples  and  generations  have  been, 
with  the  mutations  of  fortune  and  the  vicissitudes  of  life.  Their 
observation  and  experience  had  taught  them  that  long-continued 
good  fortune  and  unusual  prosperity  often  issue  at  last  in  sudden 
and  overwhelming  calamity.  They  attributed  this  to  the  jealousy 
of  the  gods,  who,  they  imagined,  were  envious  of  mortals  that 
through  such  prosperity  seemed  to  have  become  too  much  like 
one  of  themselves.  Thus  the  Greeks  believed  the  downfall  of 
Croesus,  after  his  extraordinary  course  of  uninterrupted  prosperity, 
to  have  been  brought  about  by  the  envy  of  the  celestials,  and 
they  colored  the  story  to  bear  out  this  version  of  the  matter. 

Later,  this  idea  of  the  divine  envy  was  moralized  into  a  con- 
ception of  the  righteous  indignation  of  the  gods,  aroused  by  the 
insolence  and  presumptuous  pride  so  inevitably  engendered  by 
over-great  prosperity  (see  p.  312). 

The  Suppliant.  —  Whoso  hardened  his  heart  against  the  appeal 
of  the  suppliant,  him  the  Furies  pursued  with  undying  ven- 
geance. But  only  through  certain  formalities  could  one  avail  him- 
self of  the  rights  of  a  suppliant.  Should  one,  upon  the  commission 
of  a  crime,  flee  to  a  temple,  he  became  a  suppliant  of  the  god  to 
whose  altar  he  clung,  and  to  harm  him  there  was  a  most  awful  dese- 
cration of  the  shrine.     The  gods  punished  with  dreadful  severity 


THE   SUPPLIANT.  185 

such  impiety,  and  an  inexpiable  curse  rested  upon  the  house  of 
the  offender,  while  awful  calamities  were  sure  to  fall  upon  the 
city  or  community  that  tolerated  the  presence  of  the  accursed. 
Time  and  again  the  entire  course  of  events  in  Greece  was  com- 
pletely changed  by  the  public  feeling  of  aversion  and  anger 
aroused  against  some  powerful  family  on  account  of  some  act  of 
the  nature  of  that  mentioned,  committed  by  one  or  more  of  its 
members  (see  pp.  202,  233). 

To  sit  or  kneel  at  the  hearth  of  an  enemy  was  also  a  most  sol- 
emn form  of  supplication.  An  olive  branch  borne  in  the  hand  was 
still  another  form  of  supplication,  which  rendered  especially 
sacred  and  inviolable  the  person  of  him  who  thus  appealed  for 
clemency. 

We  must  here  add,  in  order  to  anticipate  the  perplexity  that 
might  otherwise  trouble  the  reader,  that  the  harsh  doctrine  men- 
tioned above  of  the  inexpiable  and  hereditary  character  of  certain 
crimes,  was  finally,  like  the  idea  of  the  Divine  Jealousy,  softened 
and  moralized,  and  that  it  came  to  be  believed  that  by  certain 
rites  of  purification  full  atonement  might  be  made  for  personal  or 
ancestral  guilt,  and  thus  the  workings  of  the  original  curse  be 
stayed 


186  GROWTH  OF  SPARTA   AND   OF  ATHENS. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

AGE  OF  CONSTITUTIONAL  CHANGES  AND  OF  COLONIZATION: 
GROWTH  OF   SPARTA   AND   OF  ATHENS. 

(776-500  B.C.; 

I.    General  Features  of  the  Period. 

Introductory.  —  A  hasty  sketch,  such  as  we  propose  to  give  in 
this  section,  of  the  general  features  of  the  period  upon  which  we 
now  enter,  —  the  period  embraced  between  the  close  of  the 
Legendary  Age  and  the  beginning  of  the  Persian  Wars,  —  will 
serve  as  a  sort  of  introduction  to  the  history  during  this  same  time 
of  Sparta  and  Athens,  the  representative  cities  of  Greece.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  story  of  the  early  growth  of  these  cities,"  which 
we  shall  give  in  the  two  following  sections,  will  in  turn  illustrate 
what  we  shall  here  have  to  say  respecting  Hellenic  affairs  in  gen- 
eral during  this  formative  period  of  Greek  history. 

The  Homeric  Monarchies  give  Place  to  Oligarchies.  —  We 
have  seen  that  in  the  Heroic  Age  the  preferred  form  of  government 
was  a  patriarchal  monarchy.  The  Iliad  says,  "  The  rule  of  many  is 
not  a  good  thing:  let  us  have  one  ruler  only, — .one  king,  —  him 
to  whom  Zeus  has  given  the  sceptre  and  the  tutelary  sanctions."  ^ 

But  by  the  dawn  of  the  historic  period,  the  patriarchal  monar- 
chies of  the  Achaean  age  had  given  place,  in  almost  all  the  Grecian 
cities,  to  ohgarchies  or  aristocracies.  The  power  of  the  "Zeus- 
born  "  kings  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  nobles  of  his  coun- 
cil. In  Sparta,  however,  the  monarchy  was  not  actually  abolished, 
though  the  kings  —  there  were  two  —  were,  as  we  shall  learn, 
robbed  of  so  much  of  their  power  that  they  remained  scarcely 
more  than  shadow-sovereigns. 

1  II.  203-206. 


THE    OLIGARCHIES    GIVE    WAY   TO    TYRANNIES.       187 

The  Oligarchies  give  Way  to  Tyrannies.  —  As  the  Homeric 
monarchies  were  superseded  by  ohgarchies,  so  these  in  turn  were 
superseded  by  tyrannies. 

The  nobles  into  whose  hands  the  ancient  royal  authority  had 
passed  were  often  divided  among  themselves,  and  invariably 
opposed  by  the  common  freemen,  who,  as  they  grew  in  intelli- 
gence and  wealth,  naturally  aspired  to  a  place  in  the  government. 
The  issue  of  long  contentions  was  the  overthrow  almost  everywhere 
of  oligarchical  government  and  the  establishment  of  the  rule  of  a 
single  person. 

Usually  this  person  was  one  of  the  nobility,  who  held  himself 
out  as  the  champion  of  the  people,  and  who  with  their  help 
usurped  the  government.  One  w^ho  had  thus  seized  the  govern- 
ment was  called  a  Tyrant  {tyrannos).  By  this  term  the  Greeks 
did  not  mean  one  who  rules  harshly,  but  simply  one  who  holds  the 
supreme  authority  in  the  state  illegally.  Some  of  the  Greek 
Tyrants  were  mild  and  beneficent  rulers,  though  too  often  they 
were  all  that  the  name  implies  among  us.  Sparta  was  almost  the 
only  important  state  that  did  not  fall  into  the  hands  of  a  Tyrant. 

The  so-called  Age  of  the  Tyrants  lasted  from  650  to  500  b.c. 
As  is  usual  with  usurpers,  the  Greek  Tyrants  exerted  themselves  to 
make  their  rule  attractive  by  making  it  splendid.  They  instituted 
religious  festivals,  undertook  great  public  works,  and  often  gave  a 
magnificent  patronage  to  artists  and  poets.  Hence  the  age  of  the 
Tyrannies  was  an  important  one  in  the  history  of  Hellenic  art  and 
culture. 

But  the  Tyrants  sat  upon  very  unstable  thrones.  The  Greeks 
always  had  an  inextinguishable  hatred  of  arbitrary  rule ;  and  of 
course  the  nobles  who  were  excluded  from  the  government  were 
continually  plotting  against  the  power  of  the  usurper.  Conse- 
quently the  Tyrannies  were,  as  a  rule,  short-lived,  rarely  lasting 
longer  than  three  generations.  They  were  usually  violently  over- 
thrown, and  the  old  oligarchies  re-established,  or  democracies  set 
up  in  their  place.  As  a  rule,  the  Dorian  cities  preferred  oligar- 
chical, and  the  Ionian  cities  democratical,  government. 


188  GROWTH   OF  SPARTA   AND    OF  ATHENS. 

Sparta,  which,  as  has  been  noted,  never  fell  into  the  hands  of  a 
despot,  was  very  active  in  aiding  those  cities  that  had  been  so 
unfortunate  as  to  have  their  governments  usurped  by  tyrants,  to 
drive  out  the  usurpers,  and  to  re-establish  their  aristocratical 
constitutions.  Athens,  as  we  shall  see,  became  the  champion  of 
democracy. 

Among  the  most  noted  of  the  Tyrants  were  the  Pisistratidse,  at 
Athens,  of  whom  we  shall  speak  hereafter ;  Periander,  at  Corinth 
(625-585  B.C.),  who  was  a  most  cruel  ruler,  yet  so  generous  a 
patron  of  artists  and  literary  men  that  he  was  thought  worthy  of  a 
place  among  the  Seven  Sages ;  and  Polycrates,  Tyrant  of  Samos 
(535-522  B.C.),  who,  with  that  island  as  a  stronghold,  and  with  a 
fleet  of  a  hundred  war-galleys,  built  up  a  sort  of  maritime  kingdom 
in  the  ^Egean,  and  for  the  space  of  more  than  a  decade  enjoyed 
such  astonishing  and  uninterrupted  prosperity,  that  it  was  believed 
his  sudden  downfall  and  death  —  he  was  allured  to  the  Asian 
shore  by  a  Persian  satrap,  and  crucified  —  were  brought  about  by 
the  envy  of  the  gods.^ 

The  Lawgivers.  —  This  period  of  political  strife  and  constitu- 
tional changes  gave  birth  in  the  Greek  cities  to  numerous  states- 
men of  great  political  discernment  and  sagacity,  like  Moses  among 
the  Hebrews,  who  drew  up  codes  of  laws  and  constitutions  that 
formed  the  basis  of  the  aristocratical  and  democratical  govern- 
ments to  which  we  have  alluded. 

Among  the  most  noted  of  these  lawgivers  were  Lycurgus,  to 
whom  tradition  assigns  the  framing  of  the  Spartan  constitution, 
and    Solon    and    Cleisthenes,   who    established   the    democratical 

1  Herodotus  tells  how  Amasis  of  Egypt,  the  friend  and  ally  of  the  Tyrant, 
becoming  alarmed  at  his  extraordinary  course  of  good  fortune,  wrote  him, 
begging  him  to  interrupt  it  and  disarm  the  envy  of  the  gods  by  sacrificing  his 
most  valued  possession.  Polycrates,  acting  upon  the  advice,  threw  into  the 
sea  a  precious  ring,  which  he  highly  prized;  but  soon  afterwards  the  jewel 
was  found  by  his  servants  in  a  fish  that  a  fisherman  had  brought  to  the 
palace  as  a  present  for  Polycrates.  When  Amasis  heard  of  this,  he  at  once 
broke  off  his  alliance  with  the  Tyrant,  feeling  sure  that  he  was  fated  to  suffer 
some  terrible  reverse  of  fortune.     The  event  justified  his  worst  fears. 


THE   FOUNDING    OF  COLONIES.  189 

constitution  of  Athens.  Of  these  great  lawgivers  we  shall  have 
much  to  say  in  the  following  sections. 

The  Founding  of  Colonies.  — This  same  age  of  political  strife 
and  of  tyranny  also  coincides  with  the  era  of  greatest  activity 
in  the  founding  of  new  colonies.  Thousands,  driven  from  their 
homes,  like  the  Puritans  in  the  time  of  the  Stuart  tyranny  in  Eng- 
land, fled  over  the  seas,  and,  under  the  direction  of  the  Delphian 
Apollo,  laid  upon  remote  and  widely  separated  shores  the  basis  of 
"  Dispersed  Hellas."  The  overcrowding  of  population  and  the 
Greek  love  of  enterprise  and  adventure,  as  well  as  civil  dissensions, 
also  contributed  to  swell  the  number  of  emigrants.^ 

During  this  colonizing  era  Southern  Italy  became  so  thickly  set 
with  Greek  cities  as  to  become  known  as  Magna  Gracia,  '^  Great 
Greece."  Here  were  founded  during  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth 
century  B.C.  the  important  Dorian  city  of  Tarentum ;  the  wealthy 
and  luxurious  ^Eolian  city  of  Sybaris  (whence  the  term  Sybarite, 
meaning  a  voluptuary)  ;  the  great  Croton,  —  the  destroyer  of  Syb- 
aris, —  distinguished  for  its  schools  of  philosophy  and  its  victors  in 
the  Olympian  games ;  and  Rhegium,  the  mother  of  statesmen, 
historians,  poets,  and  artists.^ 

1  That  Greek  feeling  of  local  patriotism  of  which  we  have  already  spoken 
(see  p.  159)  lent  a  peculiar  character  to  Greek  colonization.  The  Hellenic 
colonies,  unlike  those  of  modern  times,  were,  as  a  rule,  politically  independent 
of  the  mother  city.  Each  colony  formed  a  distinct,  self-governing  state.  Its 
relations  to  its  mother  city  were  simply  those  of  filial  piety,  and  of  a  common 
worship.  This  was  symbolized  by  the  embers  which  the  emigrants  carried 
with  them  from  the  hearth  of  the  mother  city,  with  which  to  kindle  the  altar 
fires  of  the  new  home. 

Besides  these  independent  colonies,  however,  which  were  united  to  the 
mother  city  by  the  ties  of  friendship  and  reverence  alone,  there  was  another 
class  of  colonies  known  as  Jdertichies.  The  settlers  in  these  did  not  lose  their 
rights  of  citizenship  in  the  mother  city,  which  retained  full  control  of  their 
affairs.  Such  settlements,  however,  were  more  properly  garrisons  than  colo- 
nies, and  were  few  in  number,  compared  with  the  independent  communities. 

2  Kyme  (Cumae),  famed  throughout  the  Grecian  and  the  Roman  world  on 
account  of  its  oracle  and  Sibyl,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  as  early  as 
1050  B.C. 


190  GROWTH   OF  SPARTA   AND    OF  ATHENS. 

Upon  the  island  of  Sicily  was  planted  by  the  Dorian  Corinth 
the  city  of  Syracuse  (734  B.C.),  which,  before  Rome  had  become 
great,  waged  war  on  equal  terms  with  Carthage.  Here  also  were 
estabHshed  the  Dorian  Agrigentum,  —  the  scene  of  the  incredible 
cruelties  of  the  Tyrant  Phalaris,  —  and  a  long  list  of  large  and 
flourishing  colonies. 

In  the  Gulf  of  Lyons  was  estabHshed  about  600  B.C.  the  impor- 
tant Ionian  city  of  Massaha  (Marseilles),  the  radiating  point  of 
long  routes  of  travel  and  trade. 

On  the  African  coast  was  founded  the  great  Dorian  city  of 
Cyrene  (630  B.C.),  and  probably  about  the  same  time  was  estab- 
lished in  the  Nile  delta  the  city  of  Naucratis  (see  p.  29,  note), 
through  which  the  civilization  of  Egypt  flowed  into  Greece. 

The  tide  of  emigration  flowed  not  only  to  the  west  and  south, 
but  to  the  north  as  well.  The  northern  shores  of  the  ^gean  and 
those  of  the  Hellespont  and  the  Propontis  were  fringed  with  colo- 
nies. The  Argonautic  terrors  of  the  Black  Sea  were  forgotten  or 
unheeded,  and  even  those  remote  shores  received  their  emigrants. 
Many  of  the  settlements  in  that  quarter  were  established  by  the 
Ionian  city  of  Miletus,  which,  swarming  like  a  hive,  became  the 
mother  of  more  than  eighty  colonies. 

Through  this  wonderful  colonizing  movement  Greece  came  to 
hold  somewhat  the  same  place  in  the  ancient  Mediterranean 
world  that  England  as  a  colonizer  occupies  in  the  world  of  to- 
day. Many  of  these  colonies  not  only  reflected  honor  upon  the 
mother-land  through  the  just  renown  of  their  citizens,  but  through 
their  singiflarly  free,  active,  and  progressive  life,  exerted  upon  her 
a  most  healthful  and  stimulating  influence.  The  earhest  poets, 
artists,  and  philosophers  of  Hellas  were  natives  of  the  Asiatic  or 
European  colonial  cities. 

II.  The  Growth  of  Sparta. 

Gradual  Rise  of  Sparta. — Sparta  was  one  of  the  cities  of  the 
Peloponnesus    which    owed    their    origin    or    importance  to    the 


i6 


40 


^ 

^ 


"'^m/iue  < 


'■oai, 


opion'^^ 


■^'■''"^Uia  o 


G 


■^9alhe  r 


39.1 


i\e*V 


■Leptis 


32 


sS 


GREECE 

and  the 

GREEK  COLONIES, 


Ionian .1      I 

Dorian _... J I 

Other  Greek  Jiaces HB 

Phoenician IH 


16 


CLASSES  IN  THE   SPA J^ TAN  STATE.  191 

Dorian  Invasion  (see  p.  i68).  It  was  situated  in  the  deep  valley 
of  the  Eurotas,  in  Laconia,  and  took  its  name  Sparta  (sown  land) 
from  the  circumstance  that  it  was  built  upon  tillable  ground, 
whereas  the  heart  and  centre  of  most  Greek  cities  consisted  of  a 
lofty  rock  (the  citadel,  or  acropoHs).  It  was  also  called  Lace- 
daemon,  after  an  early  legendary  king. 

At  first,  Sparta  was  overshadowed  by  the  city  of  Argos,  —  since 
the  return  of  the  Heraclidae,  in  Dorian  hands,  —  but  gradually  she 
rose  to  the  place  of  pre-eminence  among  all  the  cities  of  the 
peninsula.  Her  power  was  largely  the  outgrowth  of  her  peculiar 
political  constitution,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  ever  framed  by 
any  state.  It  is  this  constitution,  with  which  Sparta  presents  her- 
self to  us  in  the  light  of  the  historic  period,  that  we  must  now 
examine. 

Classes  in  the  Spartan  State.  —  In  order  to  understand  the 
social  and  political  institutions  of  the  Spartans,  we  must  first 
notice  the  three  classes  —  Spartans  (Spartiatae),  Periceci,  and 
Helots  —  into  which  the  population  of  Laconia  was  divided. 

The  Spartans  proper  were  the  descendants  of  the  conquerors  of 
the  country,  and  were  Dorian  in  race  and  language.  They  com- 
posed but  a  small  fraction  of  the  entire  population.  Their  rela- 
tions to  the  conquered  people  were  those  of  an  army  of  occupa- 
tion. Sparta,  their  capital,  was  simply  a  vast  camp,  unprotected 
by  any  walls  until  later  and  degenerate  times.  The  martial  valor 
of  its  citizens  was  thought  its  only  proper  defence. 

The  Perioeci  (dwellers  around)  who  constituted  the  second  class, 
were  the  subjugated  Achaeans.  They  were  allowed  to  retain  pos- 
session of  their  lands,  but  were  forced  to  pay  tribute,  and,  in  times 
of  war,  to  fight  for  the  glory  and  interest  of  their  Spartan  masters. 

The  third  and  lowest  class  was  composed  of  slaves,  or  serfs, 
called  Helots.  The  larger  number  of  these  were  laborers  upon 
the  estates  of  the  Spartans.  They  were  the  property  of  the  state, 
and  not  of  the  individual  Spartan  lords,  among  whom  they  were 
distributed  by  lot. 

These    Helots   practically  had  no  rights  which  their   Spartan 


192  GROWTH   OF  SPARTA    AND    OF  ATHENS. 

masters  felt  bound  to  respect.  If  one  of  their  number  displayed 
unusual  powers  of  body  or  mind,  he  was  secretly  assassinated,  as 
it  was  deemed  unsafe  to  allow  such  qualities  to  be  fostered  in  this 
servile  class.  It  is  affirmed  that  when  the  Helots  grew  too  nu- 
merous for  the  safety  of  the  state,  their  numbers  were  thinned  by  a 
deliberate  massacre  of  the  surplus  population.^ 

Origin  of  the  Spartan  Institutions.  —  The  laws  and  customs 
of  the  Spartans  have  excited  more  interest,  perhaps,  than  any 
similar  institutions  of  the  ancient  world.  A  mystery  and  halo 
were  thrown  about  them  by  their  being  attributed  to  the  creative 
genius  of  a  single  lawgiver,  Lycurgus. 

But  it  is  a  proverb  that  constitutions  grow,  and  are  not  made. 
Circumstances  were  the  real  creator  of  those  strange  institutions 
—  the  circumstances  which  surrounded  a  small  band  of  conquerors 
in  the  midst  of  a  large  and  subject  population.  Nor  were  they 
the  creation  of  an  hour  —  the  fruit  of  a  happy  inspiration.  All 
the  events  of  the  early  conquest,  all  the  toils,  dangers,  and 
hardships  which  the  Dorian  warriors  endured  in  the  subjugation 
of  the  land,  and  all  the  prudence  and  watchfulness  necessary  to 
the  maintaining  of  themselves  in  the  position  of  conquerors,  helped 
to  determine  the  unusual  and  harsh  character  of  the  laws  and 
regulations  of  the  Spartan  state. 

The  work  of  Lycurgus,  then,  was  not  that  of  a  new  creation. 

^  In  his  history  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  Thucydides  makes  the  follow- 
ing statement :  "  Dreading  the  youth  and  number  of  their  slaves,  the  Lacedae- 
monians, who  have  ever  put  in  practice  many  precautions  to  curb  and  awe 
their  Helots,  made  public  proclamation,  that  so  many  of  them  as  could  claim 
the  merit  of  having  done  signal  services  to  the  Lacedaemonians  in  the  present 
war  should  enter  their  claims,  and  be  rewarded  with  freedom.  The  view  in 
this  was,  to  sound  them,  it  being  thought  that  such  as  had  the  greatness  of 
spirit  to  claim  their  freedom  in  requital  of  their  merit,  must  be  also  the  ripest 
for  rebellion.  About  two  thousand  claimants  were  adjudged  worthy  of  free- 
dom, and  accordingly  were  led  about  in  solemn  procession  to  the  temple, 
crowned  with  garlands,  as  men  honored  with  their  liberty.  But,  in  no  long 
time  after,  they  made  away  with  them  all;  nor  has  the  world  been  able  to  dis- 
cover in  what  manner  they  were  thus  to  a  man  destroyed." 


THE   LEGEND    OF  LYCURGUS.  193 

Back  of  him  lay  a  long  period  of  growth  and  development.  His 
labor  was  that  of  a  wise  and  far-seeing  statesman,  whose  work  it  is 
to  "  modify  and  shape  already-existing  habits  and  customs  into 
rule  and  law  "  ;  to  make  additions  and  improvements ;  to  antici- 
pate growing  tastes  and  tendencies.  The  very  fact  that  the  legis- 
lation of  Lycurgus  was  adopted  and  became  the  system  of  a  state, 
shows  that  it  must  have  been  simply  the  outgrowth  of  customs 
and  regulations  already  familiar  and  consequently  acceptable  to 
at  least  a  large  party  among  the  Spartans. 

The  Legend  of  Lycurgus.  —  Lycurgus,  according  to  tradition, 
lived  and  did  his  work  about  the  ninth  century  B.C.  Many  of  the 
best  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  exile.  He  is  represented  as 
acquainting  himself  with  the  laws  and  institutions  of  different 
lands,  by  converse  with  their  priests  and  sages.  He  is  said  to 
have  studied  with  great  zeal  the  laws  of  Minos,  the  legendary 
lawgiver  of  the  Cretans.  Like  the  great  legislator  Moses,  he 
became  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians.  Legend 
tells,  too,  how  he  journeyed  as  far  as  India,  and  became  a  disciple 
of  the  Brahmins. 

The  prime  of  life  was  almost  passed  when  he  returned  to  his 
native  Sparta.  So  great  was  his  reputation  for  learning  and  wis- 
dom that  he  soon  became  the  leader  of  a  strong  party.  After 
much  opposition,  a  system  of  laws  and  regulations  drawn  up  by 
him  was  adopted  by  the  Spartan  people.  Then,  binding  his 
countrymen  by  a  solemn  oath  that  they  would  carefully  observe 
his  laws  during  his  absence,  he  set  out  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Delphi. 
In  response  to  his  inquiry,  the  oracle  assured  him  that  Sparta 
would  endure  and  prosper  as  long  as  the  people  obeyed  the  laws 
he  had  given  them.  Lycurgus  caused  this  answer  to  be  carried 
to  his  countrymen ;  and  then,  that  they  might  remain  bound  by 
the  oath  they  had  taken,  he  resolved  never  to  return.  He  went 
into  an  unknown  exile.  Three  lands  claimed  to  hold  his  dust ; 
and  the  Spartans  in  after  years  perpetuated  his  memory  and  their 
own  gratitude  by  temples  and  sacrifices  in  his  honor.^ 

1  *'  The  legend  symbolizes  the  inviolability  of  the  Constitution."  —  Ranke. 


194  GROWTH   OF  SPARTA   AND    OF  ATHENS. 

The  Kings,  the  Senate,  and  the  Popular  Assembly.  —  The  so- 
called  Constitution  of  Lycurgus  provided  for  two  joint  kings,  a 
Senate  of  Elders,  and  a  Popular  Assembly. 

The  two  kings  corresponded  in  some  respects  to  the  two  Con- 
suls in  the  later  Roman  republic.  One  served  as  a  check  upon 
the  other.  This  double  sovereignty  worked  admirably ;  for  five 
centuries  there  were  no  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  Spartan  kings 
to  subvert  the  constitution.  The  power  of  the  joint  kings,  it  should 
be  added,  was  rather  nominal  than  real  (save  in  time  of  war)  ; 
so  that  while  the  Spartan  government  was  monarchical  in  form, 
it  in  reality  was  an  aristocracy,  the  Spartans  corresponding  very 
closely  to  the  feudal  lords  of  Mediaeval  Europe. 

The  Senate  {gerousia)  consisted  of  twenty- eight  elders.  The 
tvvo  co-ordinate  kings  were  also  members,  thus  raising  the  number 
to  thirty.  This  body  existed  long  before  the  time  of  Lycurgus. 
He  probably  simply  modified,  or  added  to,  its  powers  and  duties. 
No  one  could  become  a  member  of  this  body  until  he  had  reached 
the  age  of  sixty.  The  mode  of  election  was  peculiar.  The  com- 
mittee who  were  to  decide  between  the  candidates  were  confined 
in  a  chamber  near  the  public  assembling-place,  where,  without 
seeing  what  was  going  on,  they  might  hear  the  clamor  of  the  peo- 
ple. Then  the  candidates  were  presented  to  the  meeting,  one 
by  one,  and  the  partisans  of  each  greeted  their  favorite  with  great 
and  prolonged  applause.  It  was  the  duty  of  the  committee  to 
decide  which  candidate  had  been  received  with  the  greatest 
enthusiasm  and  clamor,  and  he  was  declared  the  people's  choice. 
The  proceedings  in  our  own  political  conventions  are  not  very 
dissimilar  to  this  usage  of  the  Spartan  assembly. 

The  powers  of  the  Senate  were  at  first  almost  unlimited,  extend- 
ing to  matters  of  life  and  death.  After  a  time  there  was  established 
the  ofiice  of  epho?-.  The  ephors,  who  were  five  in  number  and 
elected  by  the  Popular  Assembly,  gradually  absorbed  the  powers 
and  functions  of  the  Senate,  as  well  as  the  authority  of  the  two 
associate  kings. 

The   Popular  Assembly  was   composed  of  all  the   citizens  of 


REGULATIONS  AS    TO   LANDS  AND   MONEY.  195 

Sparta  over  thirty  years  of  age.  By  this  body  laws  were  made, 
and  questions  of  peace  and  war  decided ;  but  nothing  could  be 
brought  before  it  save  such  matters  as  the  Senate  had  previously 
decided  might  be  entertained  by  it.  It  was  by  this  assembly  that 
the  senators  were  elected  in  the  manner  above  described. 

In  striking  contrast  to  what  was  the  custom  at  Athens,  all  mat- 
ters were  decided  without  debate.  The  Spartans  were  fighters, 
not  talkers  ;  they  hated  discussion.  As  in  the  case  of  the  elec- 
tions, the  decision  of  the  assembly  respecting  a  measure  was  gener- 
ally made  known  by  acclamation.  Sometimes,  however,  very 
important  measures  were  decided  by  vote. 

Regulations  as  to  Lands  and  Money. — At  the  time  of  Lycur- 
gus  the  lands  of  Laconia  had  become  absorbed  by  the  rich, 
leaving  the  masses  in  poverty  and  distress.  It  is  certain  that  the 
lawgiver  did  much  to  remedy  this  ruinous  state  of  affairs.  Tradi- 
tion says  that  all  the  lands  were  redistributed,  an  equal  portion 
being  assigned  to  each  of  the  nine  thousand  Spartan  citizens,  and  a 
smaller  and  less  desirable  portion  to  each  of  the  thirty  thousand 
Perioeci,  —  but  it  is  not  probable  that  there  was  any  such  exact 
equahzation  of  property. 

The  Spartans  were  forbidden  to  engage  in  trade  ;  all  their  time 
must  be  passed  in  the  chase,  or  in  gymnastic  and  martial  exercise. 
Iron  was  made  the  sole  money  of  the  state.  This,  according  to 
Plutarch,  "  was  of  great  size  and  weight,  and  of  small  value,  so  that 
the  equivalent  for  ten  minae  (about  $  140)  required  a  great  room 
for  its  stowage,  and  a  yoke  of  oxen  to  draw  it."  The  object  of 
this,  he  tells  us,  was  to  prevent  its  being  used  for  the  purchase  of 
"  foreign  trumpery."  ^ 

1  The  real  truth  about  this  iron  money  is  simply  this :  The  conservative, 
non-trading  Spartans  retained  longer  than  the  other  Grecian  states  the  use 
of  a  primitive  medium  of  exchange.  Gold  and  silver  money  was  not  intro- 
duced into  Sparta  until  about  the  close  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  when  the 
great  expansion  of  her  interests  rendered  a  change  in  her  money-system  abso- 
lutely necessary.  In  referring  the  establishment  of  the  early  currency  to 
Lycurgus,  the  Spartans  simply  did  in  this  case  just  what  they  did  in  regard  to 
their  other  usages. 


196  GROWTH   OF  SPARTA   AND    OF  ATHENS. 

The  Public  Tables.  —  The  most  peculiar,  perhaps,  of  the  Lycur- 
gean  institutions  were  the  pubhc  meals  (^syssitid).  In  order  to 
correct  the  extravagance  with  which  the  tables  of  the  rich  were 
often  spread,  Lycurgus  ordered  that  all  the  Spartan  citizens  should 
eat  at  public  and  common  tables.  Each  person  was  required 
to  contribute  to  these  a  certain  amount  of  flour,  fruit,  game,  or 
pieces  from  the  sacrifices ;  if  any  one  failed  to  pay  his  contribu- 
tion, he  was  degraded  and  disfranchised.  Excepting  the  ephors, 
none,  not  even  the  kings,  were  excused  from  sitting  at  the  common 
mess.  One  of  the  kings,  returning  from  a  long  expedition,  pre- 
sumed to  dine  privately  with  his  wife,  but  received  therefor  a 
severe  reproof. 

A  luxury-loving  Athenian,  once  visiting  Sparta  and  seeing  the 
coarse  fare  of  the  citizens,  is  reported  to  have  declared  that  now 
he  understood  the  Spartan  disregard  of  life  in  battle.  "  Any  one," 
said  he,  "  must  naturally  prefer  death  to  life  on  such  fare  as  this." 

Education  of  the  Youth.  —  Children  were  considered  as  be- 
longing to  the  state.  Every  infant  was  brought  before  the  Council 
of  Elders ;  and  if  it  did  not  seem  likely  to  become  a  robust  and 
useful  citizen,  it  was  exposed  in  a  mountain  glen.  At  seven  the 
education  and  training  of  the  youth  were  committed  to  the  charge 
of  public  officers,  called  boy-trainers.  The  aim  of  the  entire 
course,  as  to  the  boys,  was  to  make  a  nation  of  soldiers  who 
should  despise  toil  and  danger  and  prefer  death  to  military  dis- 
honor. The  mind  was  cultivated  only  so  far  as  might  contribute 
to  the  main  object  of  the  system.  Reading  and  writing  were 
untaught,  and  the  art  of  rhetoric  was  despised.  Only  martial 
poems  were  recited.  The  Spartans  had  a  profound  contempt  for 
the  subtleties  and  literary  acquirements  of  the  Athenians.  Spartan 
brevity  was  a  proverb,  whence  our  word  laco7iic}  implying  a  con- 
cise and  pithy  mode  of  expression.  Boys  were  taught  to  respond 
in  the  fewest  words  possible.  At  the  public  tables  they  were  not 
permitted  to  speak  until  questioned  :  they  sat  "  silent  as  statues." 

1  From  Laconia,  the  name  of  the  district  taken  possession  of  by  the  Spar- 
tans. 


ESTIMATE    OF  THE   SPARTAN  INSTITUTIONS.         197 

As  Plutarch  puts  it,  "  Lycurgus  was  for  having  the  money  bulky, 
heavy,  and  of  little  value ;  and  the  language,  on  the  contrary,  very 
pithy  and  short,  and  a  great  deal  of  sense  compressed  in  a  few 
words." 

But  while  the  mind  was  neglected,  the  body  was  carefully 
trained.  In  leaping,  wrestling,  and  in  hurling  the  spear  the 
Spartans  acquired  the  most  surprising  nimbleness  and  dexterity. 

But  before  all  things  else  was  the  Spartan  youth  taught  to  bear 
pain  unflinchingly.  He  was  inured  to  the  cold  of  winter  by  being 
forced  to  pass  through  that  season  with  only  the  light  dress  of 
summer.  His  bed  was  a  bundle  of  river  reeds.  Sometimes  he 
was  placed  before  the  altar  of  Artemis,  and  scourged  just  for  the 
purpose  of  accustoming  his  body  to  pain.  Frequently,  it  is  said, 
boys  died  under  the  lash,  without  betraying  their  suffering  by  look 
or  moan. 

Another  custom  tended  to  the  same  end  as  the  foregoing  usage. 
The  boys  were  at  times  compelled  to  forage  for  their  food.  If 
detected,  they  were  severely  punished  for  having  been  so  unskilful 
as  not  to  get  safely  away  with  their  booty.  This  custom,  as  well 
as  the  fortitude  of  the  Spartan  youth,  is  familiar  to  all  through  the 
story  of  the  boy  who,  having  stolen  a  young  fox  and  concealed  it 
beneath  his  tunic,  allowed  the  animal  to  tear  out  his  vitals,  with- 
out betraying  himself  by  the  movement  of  a  muscle. 

The  Cryptia,  which  has  generally  been  represented  as  an  organ- 
ization of  young  Spartans  who  were  allowed,  as  a  means  of  render- 
ing themselves  ready  and  expert  in  war,  to  hunt  and  kill  the 
Helots,  seems  in  reality  to  have  been  a  sort  of  police  institution, 
designed  to  guard  against  uprisings  of  the  serfs. 

Estimate  of  the  Spartan  Institutions. — That  the  laws  and 
regulations  of  the  Spartan  constitution  were  admirably  adapted  to 
the  end  in  view,  —  the  rearing  of  a  nation  of  skilful  and  resolute 
warriors,  —  the  long  military  supremacy  of  Sparta  among  the  states 
of  Greece  abundantly  attests.  But  when  we  consider  the  aim  and 
object  of  the  Spartan  institutions,  we  must  pronounce  them  low 
and  unworthy.     The  true  order  of  things  was  just  reversed  among 


198  GROWTH  OF  SPARTA   AND    OF  ATHENS. 

the  Lacedsemonians.  Government  exists  for  the  individual :  at 
Sparta  the  individual  lived  for  the  state.  The  body  is  intended  to 
be  the  instrument  of  the  mind  :  the  Spartans  reversed  this,  and 
attended  to  the  education  of  the  mind  only  so  far  as  its  devel- 
opment enhanced  the  effectiveness  of  the  body  as  a  weapon  in 
warfare. 

Spartan  history  teaches  how  easy  it  is  for  a  nation,  like  an  indi- 
vidual, to  misdirect  its  energies  —  to  subordinate  the  higher  to  the 
lower.  It  illustrates,  too,  the  fact  that  only  those  nations  that 
labor  to  develop  that  which  is  best  and  highest  in  man  make  help- 
ful contributions  to  the  progress  of  the  world.  Sparta,  in  signifi- 
cant contrast  to  Athens,  bequeathed  nothing  to  posterity. 

The  Messenian  Wars.  —  The  most  important  event  in  Spartan 
history  between  the  age  of  Lycurgus  and  the  commencement  of 
the  Persian  War  was  the  long  contest  with  Messenia,  known  as  the 
First  and  Second  Messenian  wars  (about  750-650  B.C.). 

Messenia  was  one  of  the  districts  of  the  Peloponnesus  which, 
like  Laconia,  had  been  taken  possession  of  by  the  Dorians  at  the 
time  of  the  great  invasion.  It  was  the  most  fertile  of  all  the 
Dorian  provinces.  The  Messenians  were  aided  in  the  struggle 
by  Argos  and  other  Peloponnesian  states,  which  were  jealous  of 
the  rising  power  of  Sparta. 

It  is  told  that  the  Spartans,  in  the  second  war,  falling  into  de- 
spair, sent  to  Delphi  for  advice.  The  oracle  directed  them  to  ask 
Athens  for  a  commander.  The  Athenians  did  not  wish  to  aid  the 
Lacedaemonians,  yet  dared  not  oppose  the  oracle.  So  they  sent 
Tyrtaeus,  a  poet-schoolmaster,  who  they  hoped  and  thought  would 
prove  of  but  little  service  to  Sparta.  Whatever  truth  there  may 
be  in  this  part  of  the  story,  it  seems  indisputable  that,  during  the 
Second  Messenian  War,  Tyrtaeus,  an  Attic  poet,  reanimated  the 
drooping  spirits  of  the  Spartans  by  the  energy  of  his  martial  strains. 
Perhaps  it  would  not  be  too  much  to  say  that  Sparta  owed  her  final 
victory  to  the  inspiring  songs  of  this  martial  poet. 

The  conquered  Messenians  were  reduced  to  serfdom,  and  their 
condition  was  made  as  degrading  and  bitter  as  that  of  the  Helots 


POWER    OF  SPARTA.  199 

of  Laconia.  Many,  choosing  exile,  pushed  out  into  the  western 
seas  in  search  of  new  homes.  Some  of  the  fugitives  founded 
Rhegium,  in  Italy ;  others,  settling  in  Sicily,  gave  name  and  im- 
portance to  the  still  existing  city  of  Messena. 

Power  of  Sparta.  —  After  having  secured  possession  of  Mes- 
senia,  Sparta  conquered  the  southern  part  of  Argolis,  and  thus 
gained  control  of  a  long  strip  of  the  eastern  coast  of  the  peninsula. 
All  the  southern  portion  of  the  Peloponnesus  was  now  subject  to 
her  commands. 

On  the  north,  Sparta  extended  her  power  over  many  of  the  vil- 
lages, or  townships,  of  Arcadia ;  but  her  advance  in  this  direction 
was  at  last  checked  by  Tegea,  a  border  town  towards  Laconia,  and 
one  of  the  few  important  Arcadian  cities.  Yet  notwithstanding 
the  Tegeans  had  successfully  withstood  the  arms  of  Sparta,  still 
they  now  (about  560  B.C.)  entered  into  an  alliance  with  her,  and 
ever  after  remained  her  faithful  friend  and  helper.  This  alliance 
was  one  of  the  main  sources  of  Spartan  preponderance  in  Greece 
during  the  next  hundred  years  and  more. 

As  the  most  powerful  state  in  the  Peloponnesus,  Sparta  now 
assumed  the  leadership  of  the  sacred  league  that  protected  the 
shrine  of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  and  through  the  Pan-Hellenic  games 
there  celebrated  every  four  years  (see  p.  181),  caused  her  fame 
to  be  spread  even  beyond  the  limits  of  Hellas.  Croesus,  king  of 
Lydia,  sought  an  alliance  with  her  in  his  unfortunate  war  with  Per- 
sia, which  just  now  was  the  rising  power  in  Asia. 

HI.  The  Growth  of  Aihens.^ 

The  Attic  People. — The  population  of  Attica  in  historic  limes 
was  essentially  Ionian  in  race,  but  there  were  in  it  strains  of  other 

1  This  section  in  the  pi-esent  edition  has  been  rewritten  and,  in  so  far 
as  space  would  allow,  the  fresh  information  given  us  by  the  recently  discov- 
ered work  of  Aristotle  on  the  Atheiiia7i  Cojisiihition  incorporated  in  the 
text.  For  details  see  Kenyon's  "  Aristotle  on  the  Constitution  of  Athens"; 
also  Botsford's  "  The  Development  of  the  Athenian  Constitution"  {Cornell 
Studies  in   Classical  Philology'). 


200  GROWTH  OF  SPARTA  AXD  OF  ATHENS. 

Hellenic  and  of  non-Hellenic  stocks.  This  mixed  origin  of  the 
population  is  believed  to  be  one  secret  of  the  versatile  yet  well- 
balanced  character  which  distinguished  the  Attic  people  above  all 
other  branches  of  the  Hellenic  family.  It  is  not  the  absolutely 
pure,  but  the  mixed  races,  like  the  English  people,  that  have  made 
the  largest  contributions  to  civilization. 

The  Site  of  Athens.  —  Four  or  five  miles  from  the  sea,  a  flat- 
topped  rock,  about  one  thousand  feet  in  length  and  half  as  many 
in  width,  rises  with  abrupt  cliffs,  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  plains  of  Attica.  The  security  afforded  by  this 
eminence  doubtless  led  to  its  selection  as  a  stronghold  by  the  early 
Attic  settlers.  Here  a  few  buildings,  perched  upon  the  summit  of 
the  rock  and  surrounded  by  a  palisade,  constituted  the  beginning 
of  the  capital  whose  fame  has  spread  over  all  the  world. 

The  Kings  of  Athens.  —  When,  in  the  seventh  century  b.c, 
the  mists  of  antiquity  clear  away  from  the  plain  of  Attica,  Athens 
with  an  oligarchical  government  appears  as  the  capital  of  the 
entire  district.  It  is  evident  that  back  of  this  period  stretches  a 
long  prehistoric  development ;  but  of  the  incidents  of  that  early 
growth  we  are  left  in  almost  total  ignorance.  It  is  certain,  how- 
ever, that  during  the  Heroic  Age  Athens  was  ruled  by  kings,  like 
all  the  other  Grecian  cities.  The  names  of  Theseus  and  Codrus 
are  the  most  noted  of  the  regal  line. 

To  Theseus,  as  we  have  seen  (see  p.  163),  tradition  ascribed 
the  work  of  uniting  the  different  Attic  villages,  or  cantons,  twelve 
in  number,  into  a  single  city,  on  the  seat  of  the  ancient  Cecropia 
(see  p.  158).  This  prehistoric  union,  however  or  by  whomsoever 
effected,  laid  the  basis  of  the  greatness  of  Athens.^ 

Respecting  Codrus,  the  following  legend  is  told :  At  one  time 
the  Dorians  from  the  Peloponnesus  invaded  Attica.     Codrus  hav- 

1  "The  consolidation  of  the  Attic  Demoi  {demes,  or  townships]  into  a  single 
state  would  answer  to  the  gradual  absorption  of  the  several  English  kingdoms 
under  the  sovereignty  of  the  chiefs  of  Wessex.  In  the  one  case,  as  in  the 
other,  the  task  was  not  accomplished  in  a  day,  nor  without  violent  struggles." 
—  Cox,  History  of  Greece. 


THE   ARCHONS.  201 

ing  learned  that  an  oracle  had  assured  them  of  success  if  they 
spared  the  life  of  the  Athenian  king,  disguised  himself,  and,  with 
a  single  companion,  made  an  attack  upon  some  Spartan  soldiers, 
who  instantly  slew  him.  Discovering  that  the  king  of  Athens 
had  fallen  by  a  Lacedaemonian  sword,  the  Spartans  despaired  of 
taking  the  city,  and  withdrew  from  the  country. 

The  Archons.  —  Codrus  was  the  last  hereditary  king  of  Athens. 
His  successor,  elected  by  the  nobles  from  the  royal  family,  was 
simply  ruler  for  life.  There  were  twelve  life-kings,  and  then 
(in  752  B.C.)  the  authority  of  the  regal  office  was  still  further 
diminished  by  limiting  the  rule  of  the  king  to  ten  years.  Forty 
years  later  the  ofihce  was  thrown  open  to  all  the  nobles,  and 
soon  afterwards  (in  682  b.c.)  the  term  of  office  was  reduced 
to  one  year.  As  the  power  of  the  king  w^as  diminished,  his  old- 
time  duties  were  assigned  to  magistrates  chosen  by  the  nobles 
from  among  themselves.  The  outcome  of  these  changes  was 
that  a  little  after  the  opening  of  the  seventh  century  we  find  a 
board  of  nine  persons,  called  Archons,  of  whom  the  king  in  a 
subordinate  position  was  one,  standing  at  the  head  of  the 
Athenian  state.  The  old  Homeric  monarchy  had  become  an 
oligarchy. 

The  Council  of  the  Areopagus.  —  Besides  the  board  of  Ar- 
chons there  was  in  the  Athenian  state  at  this  time  a  very  im- 
portant tribunal,  called  the  Council  of  the  Areopagus.-^  This 
council  was  composed  exclusively  of  ex-Archons,  and  conse- 
quently was  a  purely  aristocratic  body.  Its  members  held  office 
for  life.  The  duty  of  the  council  was  to  see  that  the  laws  were 
duly  observed,  and  to  judge  and  punish  transgressors.  To  this 
court  was  committed  particularly  the  care  of  morals  and  re- 
ligion. It  probably  was  in  the  presence  of  this  venerable  tri- 
bunal that  the  apostle  Paul  stood  when  he  made  his  eloquent  de- 
fence of  Christianity.      (See  Acts  xvii,  22-32.) 

Thus,  when  the  historic  period   opens,  we  find  the  goverri- 

^  So  called  from  the  name  of  the  hill  ("Apetos  7rd7os,  "  Hill  of  Ares") 
which  was  the  assembling  place  of  the  council. 


202  GROWTH  OF  SPARTA  AND  OF  ATHENS. 

ment  at  Athens  in  the  hands  of  the  nobles.  The  common 
people  had  no  part  in  the  management  of  public  affairs.  Many 
of  them  lived  as  tenants  in  a  state  little  removed  from  serfdom 
upon  the  domains  of  the  wealthy  nobles.  If-  one  became  un- 
able to  pay  his  debts,  both  he  and  his  wife  and  children  might 
be  seized  by  his  creditor  and  sold  as  slaves.  Thus  because  of 
their  wretched  economic  condition,  as  well  as  because  of  their 
exclusion  from  the  government,  the  commons  were  filled  with 
bitterness  against  the  nobles  and  were  ready  for  revolution. 

The  Rebellion  of  Cylon  (probably  628  or  624  b.c.^).  —  Taking 
advantage  of  the  unrest  in  the  state,  Cylon,  a  rich  and  ambi- 
tious noble,  attempted  to  overthrow  the  government  and  make 
himself  supreme.  He  seized  the  citadel  of  the  Acropolis,  where 
he  was  closely  besieged  by  the  Archons.  Upon  the  rock  stood 
a  temple  of  Athena.  Finally,  hard  pressed,  the  companions  of 
Cylon  —  he  himself  had  escaped  through  the  Hnes  of  his  enemies — 
sought  refuge  within  the  shrine.  The  Archon  Megacles,  fearing 
lest  the  death  of  the  rebels  by  starvation  within  the  sacred  en- 
closure should  pollute  the  sanctuary,  offered  to  spare  their  lives 
on  condition  of  surrender.  Fearing  to  trust  themselves  among 
their  enemies  without  some  protection,  they  fastened  a  string 
to  the  statue  of  Athena,  and  holding  fast  to  this,  descended  from 
the  citadel,  into  the  streets  of  Athens.  As  they  came  in  front  of 
the  altars  of  the  Eumenides,  the  hne  broke ;  and  Megacles,  pro- 
fessing to  believe  that  this  mischance  indicated  that  the  goddess 
refused  to  shield  them  longer,  caused  them  to  be  set  upon  and 
massacred. 

Calamities  that  now  befell  the  state  caused  the  people  to  be- 
heve  that  the  crime  of  the  nobles  had  stirred  the  anger  of  the 
gods.  Thus  the  commons  were  inflamed  still  more  against 
the  government  of  the  aristocracy.  They  demanded,  and 
finally  secured,  the  banishment  of  the  Alcmseonidae,  the 
family    to   which  Megacles  belonged.     Even  the  bones  of   the 

1  Before  the  discovery  of  Aristotle's  Athenian  Constitution  this  conspiracy 
was  by  most  historians  placed  after  the  Draconian  legislation. 


THE  LAWS  AND  CONSTITUTION  OF  DRACO.  203 

dead  of  the  family  were  dug  up,  and  cast  beyond  the  frontiers 
of  the  state. 

The  people  further  insisted  upon  a  publication  of  the  laws, 
which  should  secure  them  against  the  arbitrary  and  unjust  de- 
cisions of  the  oligarchical  magistrates,  in  whose  hands,  as  we 
have  seen,  was  the  entire  administration  of  justice. 

The  Laws  and  Constitution  of  Draco  (621  b.c).  —  To  meet 
these  demands  of  the  people,  the  nobles  appointed  one  of  their 
own  number,  Draco,  to  remodel  the  constitution  and  draw  up  a 
code  of  laws. 

The  most  important  constitutional  change  made  by  Draco  re- 
lated to  the  election  of  magistrates.  These  had  hitherto  been 
chosen  by  the  Council  of  the  Areopagus.  This  important  func- 
tion was  now  committed  to  the  Ecclesia,  or  popular  assembly,  in 
which  body  all  persons  had  a  place  who  were  able  to  provide 
themselves  with  a  full  military  equipment.  Moreover,  the  magis- 
trates were  henceforth  to  be  chosen  not  exclusively  from  among 
the  nobles,  but  from  among  all  persons  possessing  a  certain 
property  quahfication,  the  amount  of  property  varying  with  the 
importance  and  character  of  the  office.  Thus  property  instead 
of  birth  was  made  the  basis  of  political  rights. 

Besides  making  these  reforms  in  the  constitution,  Draco  drew 
up  a  code  of  laws.  Tradition  says  that  the  legislator  assigned 
to  the  least  offence  the  penalty  of  death.  This  alleged  severity 
of  the  Draconian  laws  is  what  caused  a  later  Athenian  orator  to 
say  that  they  were  written,  "  not  in  ink,  but  in  blood."  The 
laws  doubtless  were  severe,  though  not  as  severe  as  the  tradition 
affirms.  But  there  was  one  real  defect  in  Draco's  work.  He 
gave  no  relief  to  the  poor  who  were  the  victims  of  the  harsh 
laws  of   debt. 

The  Reforms  of  Solon  (594  b.c).  —  Shortly  after  the  Draco- 
nian reforms,  a  war  broke  out  between  Athens  and  Megara,  re- 
specting the  island  of  Salamis,  to  which  both  cities  laid  claim. 
The  struggle  finally  ended  in  favor  of  Athens,  but  the  burdens 
the  war  had  entailed  upon  the  Athenians  rendered  still  more  un- 


204  GROWTH  OF  SPARTA  AND  OF  ATHENS. 

endurable  the  condition  of  the  poorer  classes,  and  made  still 
more  urgent  some  measures  of  relief. 

Once  more,  as  in  the  time  of  Draco,  the  Athenians  placed 
their  laws  and  constitution  in  the  hands  of  a  single  man,  to  be 
remodelled  as  he  might  deem  best.  Solon,  a  man  held  in  high 
esteem  by  all  classes  on  account  of  distinguished  services  ren- 
dered to  the  state,  particularly  in  the  recent  war  with  Megara, 
was  selected  to  discharge  this  responsible  duty. 

Solon  turned  his  attention  first  to  relieving  the  misery  of  the 
debtor  class.  He  cancelled  all  debts  of  every  kind,  both  public 
and  private.  Moreover,  that  there  might  never  again  be  seen  in 
Attica  the  spectacle  of  men  dragged  off  in  chains  to  be  sold  as 
slaves  in  payment  of  their  debts,  Solon  prohibited  the  practice 
in  the  future  of  securing  debts  on  the  body  of  the  debtor.  No 
Athenian  was  ever  after  this  sold  for  debt.^ 

Such  was  the  most  important  of  the  economic  reforms  of 
Solon.  His  constitutional  reforms  were  equally  wise  and  benef- 
icent. The  Ecclesia,  or  popular  assembly,  was  at  this  time  com- 
posed of  all  those  persons  who  were  able  to  provide  themselves 
with  arms  and  armor ;  that  is  to  say,  of  all  the  members  of  the 
three  highest  of  the  four  property  classes  into  which  the  people 
were  divided.  The  fourth  and  poorest  class,  the  Thetes,  were 
excluded.  Solon  opened  the  Ecclesia  to  them,  giving  them  the 
right  to  vote,  but  not  to  hold  office.  Solon  also  made  other 
changes  in  the  constitution,  whereby  the  magistrates  became  re- 
sponsible to  the  people,  who  henceforth  not  only  elected  them, 
but  judged  them  in  case  they  did  wrong. 

The  council  of  four  hundred  and  one,  called  into  existence  by 
the  Draconian  legislation,  was  reorganized  by  Solon.  It  was 
henceforth  to  consist  of  four  hundred  members,  each  tribe  con- 
tributing one  hundred. 

1  Solon  also  reformed  the  monetary  system.  There  was  no  connection 
between  this  measure  and  the  cancellation  of  debts,  as  was  generally  held 
before  the  recent  discovery  of  Aristotle's  work  on  the  Athenian  Constitu- 
tion. 


EXPULSION  OF  THE   TYRANTS  FROM  A  THENS.       205 

The  Areopagus  remained,  under  the  Solonian  constitution,  the 
guardian  of  the  laws  and  the  protector  of  the  constitution,  pun- 
ishing  without  appeal  lawbreakers  and  conspirators  against  the 
state.  Before  all  else  was  it  to  maintain  a  strict  censorship  of 
public  and  private  morals. 

Besides  the  above  relief  measures  and  constitutional  reforms 
of  Solon,  the  legislator  enacted  various  laws,  all  in  the  interest 
of  equity,  harmony  and  morality. 

The  Tyrant  Pisistratus  (560-527  b.c).  Solon  had  the  un- 
speakable misfortune  of  living  to  see  his  institutions  used  to  set  up 
a  tyranny,  by  an  ambitious  kinsman,  his  nephew  Pisistratus.  This 
man  courted  popular  favor,  and  called  himself  the  "  friend  of  the 
people."  One  day,  having  inflicted  many  wounds  upon  himself, 
he  drove  his  chariot  hastily  into  the  public  square,  and  pretended 
that  he  had  been  thus  set  upon  by  the  nobles,  because  of  his  devo- 
tion to  the  people's  cause.  The  people,  moved  with  sympathy  and 
indignation,  voted  him  a  guard  of  fifty  men.  Under  cover  of  rais- 
ing this  company,  Pisistratus  gathered  a  much  larger  force,  seized 
the  Acropolis,  and  made  himself  master  of  Athens.  Though  twice 
expelled  from  the  city,  he  as  often  returned,  and  finally  succeeded 
in  getting  a  permanent  hold  of  the  government. 

The  rule  of  the  usurper  was  mild,  and  under  him  Athens  en- 
joyed a  period  of  great  prosperity.  He  adorned  the  city  with 
temples  and  other  splendid  buildings,  and  constructed  great  aque- 
ducts. Just  beyond  the  city  walls,  he  laid  out  the  Lyceum,  a  sort 
of  public  park,  made  inviting  with  groves,  porches,  and  prome- 
nades, which  became  in  after  years  the  favorite  resort  of  the  phi- 
losophers and  poets  of  Athens.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  lit- 
erature ;  and  his  library  —  the  first  gathered  at  Athens  —  was 
generously  thrown  open  to  the  public.  He  also  caused  the 
Homeric  poems  to  be  collected  and  edited. 

Pisistratus  died  527  B.C.,  thirty- three  years  after  his  first  seizure 
of  the  citadel.  Solon  himself  said  of  him  that  he  had  no  vice 
save  ambition. 

Expulsion  of  the  Tyrants  from  Athens  (510  b.c). — The  two 
sons  of  Pisistratus,  Hippias  and  Hipparchus,  succeeded  to  his  power. 


206  GROWTH  OF  SPARTA  AND  OF  ATHENS. 

At  first  they  emulated  the  example  of  their  father,  and  Athens 
flourished  under  their  parental  rule.  But  at  length  an  unfortunate 
event  gave  an  entirely  different  tone  to  the  governmento  Hippar- 
chus,  having  insulted  a  young  noble,  was  assassinated.  Hippias 
escaped  harm,  but  the  event  caused  him  to  become  suspicious  and 
severe.  His  rule  now  became  a  tyranny  indeed,  and  was  brought 
to  an  end  in  the  following  way. 

After  his  last  return  to  Athens,  Pisistratus  had  sent  the  "ac- 
cursed" Alcmaeonidas  into  a  second  exile.  During  this  period  of 
banishment  an  opportunity  arose  for  them  to  efface  the  stain  of 
sacrilege  which  was  still  supposed  to  cling  to  them  on  account  of 
the  old  crime  of  Megacles  (see  p.  202).  The  temple  at  Delphi 
having  been  destroyed  by  fire,  they  contracted  with  the  Amphic- 
tyons  to  rebuild  it.  They  not  only  completed  the  work  in  the 
most  honorable  manner  throughout,  but  even  went  so  far  beyond 
the  terms  of  their  contract  as  to  use  beautiful  Parian  marble  for 
the  front  of  the  temple,  when  only  common  stone  was  required 
by  the  specifications. 

By  this  act  — a  pious  and  generous  one,  had  it  only  been  wholly 
disinterested  —  the  exiled  family  won  to  such  a  degree  the  favor 
of  the  priests  of  the  sacred  college,  that  they  were  able  to  influ- 
ence the  utterances  of  the  oracle.  The  invariable  answer  now  of 
the  Pythia  to  Spartan  inquirers  at  the  shrine  was,  "  Athens  must 
be  set  free." 

Moved  at  last  by  the  repeated  injunctions  of  the  oracle,  the 
Spartans  resolved  to  drive  Hippiac  from  Athens.  Their  first  at- 
tempt was  unsuccessful ;  but  in  a  second,  made  in  connection  with 
the  Alcmaeonidse  headed  by  Cleisthenes,  they  were  so  fortunate  as 
to  capture  the  two  children  of  Hippias,  who,  to  secure  their  release, 
agreed  to  leave  the  city  (510  B.C.).  He  retired  to  Asia  Minor, 
and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life,  as  we  shall  learn  hereafter,  seeking 
aid  in  different  quarters  to  re-establish  his  tyranny  in  Athens.  The 
Athenians  passed  a  decree  of  perpetual  exile  against  him  and  all 
his  family. 

The  Reforms  of  Cleisthenes  (509  b.c).  —  Straightway  upon  the 
expulsion  of  the  Tyrant  Hippias,  there  arose  a  great  strife  between 


THE  REFORMS  OF  CLE  IS  THE  NFS.  207 

the  people,  who  of  course  wished  to  organize  the  government  in 
accord  with  the  constitution  of  Solon,  and  the  nobles,  who  desired 
to  re-establish  the  old  aristocratical  rule.  Cleisthenes,  aristocrat 
though  he  was,  espoused  the  cause  of  the  popular  party.  Through 
his  influence  several  important  changes  in  the  constitution,  which 
rendered  it  still  more  democratical  than  under  Solon,  were  now 
effected. 

In  place  of  the  four  so-called  Ionian  tribes,  into  which  all  the 
citizens  of  Athens  up  to  this  time  had  been  divided,  Cleisthenes 
formed  ten  new  tribes,  which  included  a/l  the  free  iiihabitants  of 
Attica}  Thus  no  matter  in  what  province  or  hamlet  of  Attica  a 
man's  home  might  be,  if  he  were  not  a  slave,  he  was  a  citizen  of 
Athens,  and  had  the  right  to  vote  in  the  popular  assembly,  and  to 
enjoy  all  the  other  privileges  of  Athenian  citizenship. 

This,  notwithstanding  the  retention  of  the  old  property  classes, 
made  such  a  radical  change  in  the  constitution  in  the  interest  of 
the  masses,  that  Cleisthenes  rather  than  Solon  is  regarded  by  many 
as  the  real  founder  of  the  Athenian  democracy. 

The  ten  tribes,  which  were  really  geographical  divisions  of  At- 
tica, were  each  made  up  of  a  number  of  widely  separated  town- 
ships, or  denies,  of  which  there  were  at  first  probably  one  hundred. 
Each  township  contained  a  hamlet  or  village,  possessed  its  own 
magistrates,  and  managed  its  local  affairs. 

The  Senate  was  remodelled  in  accordance  with  the  new  divisions 
of  the  state.  It  had  consisted  of  four  hundred  members,  one  hun- 
dred from  each  of  the  ancient  tribes.  It  was  now  made  up  of  five 
hundred  members,  fifty  from  each  of  the  new  tribes.  Its  duties 
and  powers,  as  well  as  those  of  the  popular  assembly,  were  greatly 
increased,  while  those  of  the  Archons  and  of  the  aristocratical 
court  of  the  Areopagus  were  correspondingly  diminished.  Many 
cases  hitherto  tried  by  these  bodies  were  hereafter  decided  by  cit- 
izen juries.     Thus  all  the  citizens  of  the  state  were  accustomed 

1  Aside  from  enlarging  them  by  the  admission  of  the  new-made  citizens, 
Cleisthenes  did  not  disturb  the  four  property  classes  into  which  the  citizens 
of  Athens  were  divided.  The  duties  and  privileges  of  these  classes  (eligi- 
bility to  the  archonship,  etc.)  remained  as  before.     See  p.  203. 


208  GROWTH   OF  SPARTA    AND    OF  ATHENS. 

not  only  to  the  management  of  political  affairs,  but  were  trained 
in  the  exercise  of  judicial  functions. 

The  command  of  the  military  forces  was  intrusted  to  ten  gen- 
erals {strategi),  one  for  each  of  the  new  tribes.  The  supreme 
command  was  held  by  each  of  the  ten  generals  in  turn,  for  one 
day  only  at  a  time. 

Ostracism.  —  But  of  all  the  innovations  or  institutions  of 
Cleisthenes,  that  known  as  ostracism  was  the  most  characteristic, 
if  not  the  most  important.  By  means  of  this  process  any  person 
who  had  excited  the  suspicions  or  displeasure  of  the  people  could, 
without  trial,  be  banished  from  Athens  for  a  period  of  ten  years. 
Six  thousand  votes  cast  against  any  person  in  a  meeting  of  the 
popular  assembly  was  a  decree  of  banishment.  The  name  of  the 
person  whose  banishment  was  sought  was  written  on  a  piece  of 
pottery  or  a  shell  (in  Greek  ostrakon),  hence  the  term  ostracisjn. 

The  original  design  of  this  institution  was  to  prevent  the  recur- 
rence of  such  a  usurpation  as  that  of  the  Pisistratidss.  The  priv- 
ilege and  power  it  gave  the  people  were  often  abused,  and  many 
of  the  ablest  and  best  statesmen  of  Athens  were  sent  into  exile 
through  the  influence  of  some  demagogue  who  for  the  moment 
had  caught  the  popular  ear. 

No  stigma  or  disgrace  attached  to  the  person  ostracized.  The 
vote  came  to  be  employed,  as  a  rule,  simply  to  settle  disputes 
between  rival  leaders  of  pphtical  parties,  and,  when  thus  used, 
was  designed  to  put  an  end  to  dangerous  contentions  of  powerful 
factions  in  the  state.  Thus  the  vote  merely  expressed  political 
preference,  the  ostracized  person  being  simply  the  defeated  can- 
didate for  popular  favor. 

The  institution  was  short-lived.  It  was  resorted  to  for  the  last 
time  during  the  Peloponnesian  War  (417  B.C.).  The  people  then, 
in  a  freak,  ostracized  a  man  whom  all  admitted  to  be  the  meanest 
man  in  Athens.  This  was  regarded  as  such  a  degradation  of  the 
institution,  as  well  as  such  an  honor  to  the  mean  man,  that  never 
thereafter  did  the  Athenians  degrade  a  good  man,  or  honor  a  bad 
one,  by  a  resort  to  the  measure. 

Sparta  opposes  the  Athenian  Democracy.  —  The  aristocratic 


SPARTA    OPPOSES    THE   ATHENIAN  DEMOCRACY.       209 

party  at  Athens  was  naturally  bitterly  opposed  to  all  these  demo- 
cratic innovations.  The  Spartans,  also,  viewed  with  disquiet  and 
jealousy  this  rapid  growth  of  the  Athenian  democracy,  and  their 
King  Cleomenes,  instigated  by  Isagoras,  the  leader  of  the  Athe- 
nian nobles,  made  two  unsuccessful  invasions  of  Attica,  for  the 
purpose  of  overthrowing  the  Athenian  government.  In  the  second 
of  these,  the  Spartans  had  as  allies  north  of  the  Isthmus  the 
cities  of  Thebes  and  Chalcis,  the  latter  a  town  upon  the  island  of 
Euboea. 

After  the  withdrawal  from  Attica  of  the  Peloponnesian  forces,  the 
Athenians  chastised  the  Thebans  for  giving  aid  to  the  Spartans ; 
and  then  crossing  the  channel  to  Euboea,  captured  Chalcis,  took 
away  from  the  Chalcidians  their  lands,  and  distributed  them  by 
lot  among  four  thousand  Attic  farmers. 

These  colonists  were  not  ordinary  emigrants  ;  they  did  not  cease 
to  be  citizens  of  Athens.  In  a  word,  the  part  of  the  island  thus 
settled  became  simply  an  addition  to  Attic  territory.  This  was 
the  first  of  that  class  of  colonies  which  we  have  already  described 
under  the  name  kk7'uchies  (see  p.  189,  note).  It  proved  of  vast 
service  to  Athens. 

Cleomenes  now  thought  to  secure  his  object  through  Hippias. 
Inviting  the  deposed  Tyrant  over  from  Asia,  he  colled  at  Sparta 
a  convention  of  ail  her  Peloponnesian  allies,  and  tried  to  persuade 
them  to  aid  the  Spartans  in  restoring  Hippias  to  power  in  Athens. 
But  the  eloquent  portrayal  by  the  Corinthian  deputy  Sosicles,  of 
the  wrongs  Corinth  had  endured  at  the  hands  of  the  Tyrant 
Periander,  and  his  scathing  rebuke  of  Sparta's  inconsistency  in 
overthrowing  tyrannies  elsewhere  and  then  trying  to  set  one  up  in 
Athens,  caused  all  the  allies  to  refuse  to  lend  any  aid  to  the  pro- 
posed undertaking,  so  that  Cleomenes  was  forced  to  abandon  it. 

Hippias  now  withdrew  once  more  to  Asia  Minor,  and  we  soon 
find  him  at  the  court  of  King  Darius,  seeking  aid  of  the  Persians. 
His  solicitations,  in  connection  with  an  affront  which  the  Athe- 
nians just  now  offered  the  king  himself  by  aiding  his  revolted  sub- 
jects in  Ionia,  led  directly  up  to  the  memorable  struggle  known  as 
the  Graeco- Persian  Wars. 


210 


THE    GRj^CO-PERSIAN   WARS. 


GREEK    WARRIORS    PREPARING    FOR    BATTLE. 


CHAPTER   V. 


THE  GR/ECO-PERSIAN   WARS. 


(500-479   B.C.) 

Expeditions  of  Darius  against  Greece.  —  In  narrating  the 
history  of  the  Persians,  we  have  already  told  how  Darius,  after 
having  subdued  the  revolt  of  his  Ionian  subjects  in  Asia  Minor, 
turned*his  armaments  against  Eretria  and  Athens,  to  punish  these 
cities  for  the  part  they  had  taken  in  the  capture  and  burning  of 
Sardis.  We  have  seen  how  ill-fated  was  his  first  expedition,  which 
was  led  by  his  son-in-law  Mardonius  —  the  army  being  cut  almost 
to  pieces  in  Thrace  by  the  fierce  native  tribes,  and  the  fleet  being 
shattered  by  heavy  seas  off  the  stormy  promontory  of  Mount 
Athos  (see  p.  140). 

Undismayed  by  the  disaster  that  had  befallen  the  expedition  of 
Mardonius,  Darius  issued  orders  for  the  raising  and  equipping  of 
another  and  stronger  armament.  Meanwhile  he  sent  heralds 
to  the  various  Grecian  states  to  demand  earth  and  water,  which 
elements  among  the  Persians  were  symbols  of  submission.  The 
weaker  states  gave  the  tokens  required ;  but  the  Athenians  and 
Spartans  threw  the  envoys  of  the  king  into  pits  and  wells,  and  bade 


THE   BATTLE    OF  MARATHON.  211 

them  help  themselves  to  earth  and  water.  By  the  beginning  of 
the  year  490  B.C.,  another  Persian  army  of  120,000  men  had  been 
mustered  for  the  second  attempt  upon  Greece.  This  armament 
was  intrusted  to  the  command  of  the  experienced  generals  Datis 
and  Artaphernes ;  but  was  under  the  guidance  of  the  traitor 
Hippias.  A  fleet  of  six  hundred  ships  bore  the  army  from  the 
coasts  of  Asia  Minor  over  the  yEgean  towards  the  Grecian  shores. 

After  receiving  the  submission  of  the  most  important  of  the 
Cyclades,  and  capturing  and  sacking  the  city  of  Eretria  upon  the 
island  of  Euboea,  the  Persians  landed  at  Marathon,  barely  one 
day's  journey  from  Athens.  Here  is  a  sheltered  bay,  which  is 
edged  by  a  crescent-shaped  plain,  backed  by  the  rugged  ranges 
of  Parnes  and  Pentelicus.  Upon  this  level  ground  the  Persian 
generals  drew  up  their  army,  flushed  and  confident  with  their 
recent  successes. 

The  Battle  of  Marathon  (490  b.c).  —  The  Athenians  were 
nerved  by  the  very  magnitude  of  the  danger  to  almost  superhuman 
energy.  Slaves  were  transformed  into  soldiers  by  the  promise  of 
liberty.  A  fleet  runner,  Phidippides  by  name,  was  despatched  to 
Sparta  for  aid.  In  just  thirty-six  hours  he  was  in  Sparta,  which 
is  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  Athens.  But  it  so  happened 
that  it  lacked  a  few  days  of  the  full  moon,  during  which  interval 
the  Spartans,  owing  to  an  old  superstition,  were  averse  to  setting 
out  upon  a  military  expedition.  They  promised  aid,  but  moved 
only  in  time  to  reach  Athens  when  all  was  over.  The  Plataeans, 
firm  and  grateful  friends  of  the  Athenians,  on  account  of  some 
former  service,  no  sooner  received  the  latter's  appeal  for  help  than 
they  responded  to  a  man. 

The  Athenians  and  their  faithful  allies,  numbering  about  ten 
thousand  in  all,  under  the  command  of  Miltiades,  were  drawn  up 
in  battle  array  just  where  the  hills  of  Pentelicus  sink  down  into  the 
plain  of  Marathon.  The  vast  host  of  the  Persians  filled  the  level 
ground  in  their  front.  The  fate  of  Greece  and  the  future  of 
Europe  were  in  the  keeping  of  Miltiades  and  his  trusty  warriors. 
Without  waiting  for  the  attack  of  the  Persians,  the  Greeks  charged 


212  THE    GRMCO-PERSIAN   WARS. 

and  swept  like  a  tempest  from  the  mountain  over  the  plain,  pushed 
the  Persians  back  towards  the  shore,  and  with  great  slaughter 
drove  them  to  their  ships. 

Miltiades  at  once  despatched  a  courier  to  Athens  with  intelli- 
gence of  his  victory.  The  messenger  reached  the  city  in  a  few 
hours,  but  in  so  breathless  a  state  that,  as  the  people  thronged 
eagerly  around  him  to  hear  the  news  he  bore,  he  could  merely 
gasp,  "  Victory  is  ours,"  and  fell  dead. 

But  the  danger  was  not  yet  past.  The  Persian  fleet,  instead  of 
returning  to  the  coast  of  Asia,  bore  down  upon  Athens.  Informed 
by  watchers  on  the  hills  of  the  movements  of  the  enemy,  Miltiades 
immediately  set  out  with  his  little  army  for  the  capital,  which  he 
reached  just  at  evening,  the  battle  at  Marathon  having  been  won 
in  the  forenoon  of  that  same  day.  The  next  morning,  when  the 
Persian  generals  would  have  made  an  attack  upon  the  city,  they 
found  themselves  confronted  by  the  same  men  who  but  yesterday 
had  beaten  them  back  from  the  plains  of  Marathon.  Shrinking 
from  another  encounter  with  these  citizen-soldiers  of  x^thens,  the 
Persians  spread  their  sails,  and  bore  away  towards  the  Ionian 
shore. 

Thus  the  cloud  that  had  lowered  so  threateningly  over  Hellas 
M^as  for  a  time  dissipated.  The  most  imposing  honors  were 
accorded  to  the  heroes  who  had  achieved  the  glorious  victory,  and 
their  names  and  deeds  were  transmitted  to  posterity,  in  song  and 
marble.  The  bodies  of  the  one  hundred  and  ninety-two  Athenians 
who  had  fallen,  were  buried  on  the  field,  and  an  enormous  mound 
of  earth  was  raised  over  them.  Ten  marble  columns  surmounting 
the  tumulus  bore  the  names  of  the  heroes  through  more  than  six 
centuries. 

The  gods  were  believed  to  have  interposed  in  behalf  of  Greece  ; 
and  suitable  recognition  of  their  favor  was  made  in  gifts  and 
memorials.  A  considerable  part  of  the  brazen  arms  and  shields 
gathered  from  the  battle-field  was  melted  into  a  colossal  statue  of 
Athena,  which  was  placed  upon  the  AcropoHs,  as  the  guardian  of 
Athens.      Tradition  also  says    that,   in   after   years,   the   grateful 


RESULTS   OF   THE   BATTLE    OF  MARATHON.  213 

Athenians  ordered  their  great  sculptor  Phidias  to  cut  the  block 
of  marble  which  the  confident  Persians  had  brought  with  them  to 
set  up  as  a  monument  of  their  anticipated  victory,  into  a  statue 
of  Nemesis,  the  goddess  who  punishes  the  proud  and  insolent. 

Results  of  the  Battle  of  Marathon.  —  The  battle  of  Marathon 
is  reckoned  as  one  of  the  "decisive  battles  of  the  world."  It 
marks  an  epoch,  not  only  in  the  life  of  Greece,  but  in  that  of 
Europe.  Hellenic  civilization  was  spared  to  mature  its  fruit,  not 
for  itself  alone,  but  for  the  world.  The  battle  decided  that  no 
longer  the  despotism  of  the  East,  with  its  repression  of  all  indi- 
vidual action,  but  the  freedom  of  the  West,  with  all  its  incentives 
to  personal  effort,  should  control  the  affairs  and  mould  the  ideas 
and  institutions  of  the  future.  It  broke  the  spell  of  the  Persian 
name,  and  destroyed  forever  the  prestige  of  the  Persian  arms.  It 
gave  the  Hellenic  peoples  that  position  of  authority  and  pre- 
eminence that  had  been  so  long  enjoyed  by  the  successive  races 
of  the  East.  It  especially  revealed  the  Athenians  to  themselves. 
The  consciousness  of  resources  and  power  became  the  inspiration 
of  their  future  acts.  They  performed  great  deeds  thereafter  be- 
cause they  believed  themselves  able  to  perform  them. 

Miltiades  falls  into  Disgrace.  —  The  distinguished  services 
Miltiades  had  rendered  his  country,  made  him  the  hero  of  the  hour 
at  Athens.  Taking  advantage  of  the  public  feeling  in  his  favor,  he 
persuaded  the  Athenians  to  put  in  his  hands  a  fleet  for  an  enter- 
prise respecting  the  nature  of  which  no  one  save  himself  was  to 
know  anything  whatever.  Of  course  it  was  generally  supposed 
that  he  meditated  an  attack  upon  the  Persians  or  their  allies,  and 
with  full  faith  in  the  judgment  as  well  as  in  the  integrity  of  their 
favorite,  the  Athenians  gave  him  the  command  he  asked. 

But  Miltiades  abused  the  confidence  imposed  in  him.  He  led 
the  expedition  against  the  island  of  Paros,  simply  to  avenge  some 
private  wrong.  The  undertaking  was  unsuccessful,  and  Miltiades, 
severely  wounded,  returned  to  Athens^  where  he  was  brought  to 
trial  for  his  conduct.  His  never-to-be-forgotten  services  at  Mara- 
thon pleaded  eloquently  for  him,  and  he  escaped  being  sentenced 


214 


THE    GRMCO-PERSIAN   WARS. 


to  death,  but  was  subjected  to  a  heavy  fine.  This  he  was  unable 
to  pay,  and  in  a  short  time  he  died  of  his  wound.  The  unfortu- 
nate affair  left  an  ineffaceable  blot  upon  a  fame  otherwise  the  most 
resplendent  in  Grecian  story. 

Athens  prepares  for  Persian  Vengeance.  —  Many  among  the 
Athenians  were  inclined  to  believe  that  the  battle  of  Marathon 


THEMISTOCLES. 


had  freed  Athens  forever  from  the  danger  of  a  Persian  invasion. 
But  there  was  at  least  one  among  them  v/ho  was  clear-sighted 
enough  to  see  that  that  battle  was  only  the  beginning  of  a  great 
struggle.      This   was    Themistocles,    a    sagacious,   versatile,    and 


J 


XERXES'   PREPARATIONS    TO  INVADE    GREECE.     215 

ambitious  statesman,  who  labored  to  persuade  the  Athenians  to 
strengthen  their  navy,  in  order  to  be  ready  to  meet  the  danger  he 
foresaw. 

Themistocles  was  opposed  in  this  pohcy  by  Aristides,  called  the 
Just,  a  man  of  the  most  scrupulous  integrity,  who  feared  that 
Athens  would  make  a  serious  mistake  if  she  converted  her  land 
force  into  a  naval  armament.  The  contention  grew  so  sharp 
between  them  that  the  ostracism  was  called  into  use  to  decide 
the  matter.  Six  thousand  votes  were  cast  against  Aristides,  and 
he  was  sent  into  exile. 

It  is  related  that  while  the  vote  that  ostracized  him  was  being 
taken  in  the  popular  assembly,  an  illiterate  peasant,  who  was  a 
stranger  to  Aristides,  asked  him  to  write  the  name  of  Aristides 
upon  his  tablet.  As  he  placed  the  name  desired  upon  the  shell, 
the  statesman  asked  the  man  what  wrong  Aristides  had  ever  done 
him.  "  None,"  responded  the  voter;  "  I  do  not  even  know  him  ; 
but  I  am  tired  of  hearing  him  called  the  Just." 

After  the  banishment  of  Aristides,  Themistocles  was  free  to 
carry  out  his  naval  policy  without  any  serious  opposition,  and 
soon  Athens  had  the  largest  fleet  of  any  Greek  city,  with  a  splen- 
did harbor  at  Pirseus. 

Xerxes'  Preparations  to  invade  Greece.  —  No  sooner  had  the 
news  of  the  disaster  at  Marathon  been  carried  to  Darius  than  he 
began  to  make  gigantic  preparations  to  avenge  this  second  defeat 
and  insult.  It  was  in  the  midst  of  these  plans  for  revenge  that, 
as  we  have  already  learned,  death  cut  short  his  reign,  and  his  son 
Xerxes  came  to  the  throne  (see  p.  141). 

Urged  on  by  his  nobles,  as  well  as  by  exiled  Greeks  at  his  court, 
who  sought  to  gratify  ambition  or  enjoy  revenge  in  the  humiliation 
and  ruin  of  their  native  land,  Xerxes,  though  at  first  disinclined 
to  enter  into  a  contest  with  the  Greeks,  at  length  ordered  the 
preparations  begun  by  his  father  to  be  pushed  forward  with  the 
utmost  energy.  For  eight  years  all  Asia  resounded  with  the  din 
of  preparation.  Levies  were  made  upon  all  the  provinces  that 
acknowledged  the  authority  of  the  Great  King,  from  India  to  the 


216  THE    GRMCO-PERSIAN   WARS. 

Hellespont.  Vast  contingents  of  vessels  were  furnished  by  the 
coast  countries  of  the  Mediterranean.  Immense  stores  of  provis- 
ions, the  harvests  of  many  years,  were  gathered  into  great  store- 
houses along  the  intended  line  of  march. 

While  all  these  preparations  were  going  on  in  Asia  itself,  Phoe- 
nician and  Egyptian  architects  were  employed  in  spanning  the 
Hellespont  with  a  double  bridge  of  boats,  which  was  to  unite  the 
two  continents  as  with  a  royal  highway.  At  the  same  time,  the 
isthmus  at  Mount  Athos,  in  rounding  which  promontory  the  ad- 
mirals of  Mardonius  had  lost  their  fleet,  was  cut  by  a  canal,  traces 
of  which  may  be  seen  at  this  day.  Three  years  were  consumed  in 
these  gigantic  works.  With  them  completed,  or  far  advanced, 
Xerxes  set  out  from  his  capital  to  join  the  countless  hosts  that 
from  all  quarters  of  the  compass  were  gathering  at  Sardis,  in  Asia 
Minor. 

Disunion  of  the  Greeks:  Congress  at  Corinth  (481  e.g.). — 
Startling  rumors  of  the  gigantic  preparations  that  the  Persian  king 
was  making  to  crush  them  were  constantly  borne  across  the  ^gean 
to  the  ears  of  the  Greeks  in  Europe.  Finally  came  intelligence 
that  Xerxes  was  about  to  begin  his  march.  Something  must  now 
be  done  to  meet  the  impending  danger.  Mainly  through  the 
exertions  of  Themistocles,  a  council  of  the  Greek  cities  was  con- 
vened at  Corinth  in  the  fall  of  481  B.C. 

But  on  account  of  feuds,  jealousies,  and  party  spirit,  only  a 
small  number  of  the  states  of  Hellas  could  be  brought  to  act  in 
concert.  Argos  would  not  join  the  proposed  confederation  through 
hatred  of  Sparta ;  Thebes,  through  jealousy  of  Athens.  The  Cre- 
tans, to  whom  an  embassy  had  been  sent  soliciting  aid,  refused  all 
assistance.  The  Corcyrseans  promised  to  help,  but  they  were  not 
sincere.  Gelon,  the  Tyrant  of  Syracuse,  offered  to  send  over  a 
large  armament,  provided  that  he  were  given  the  chief  command 
of  the  allied  forces.     His  aid  on  such  terms  was  refused. 

Thus,  through  different  causes,  many  of  the  Greek  cities  held 
aloof  from  the  confederation,  so  that  only  about  fifteen  or  sixteen 
states  were  brought  to  unite  their  resources  against  the  Barbarians  \ 


DISUNION   OF   THE    GREEKS,  lYl 

and  even  the  strength  of  many  of  those  cities  that  did  enter  into 
the  aUiance  was  divided  by  party  spirit.  The  friends  of  aristo- 
cratical  government  were  ahnost  invariably  friends  of  Persia,  be- 
cause a  Persian  victory  in  Greece  proper  meant  what  it  had  already 
meant  in  Ionia,  —  a  suppression  of  the  democracies  as  incompati- 
ble with  the  Persian  form  of  government.  Thus  for  the  sake  of 
a  party  victory,  the  aristocrats  were  ready  to  betray  their  country 
into  the  hands  of  the  Barbarians.  To  make  their  conduct  appear 
less  outrageous  to  the  common  Hellenic  mind,  some  of  these  so- 
called  "Medizing^  Greeks"  even  tried  to  make  out  that  the  Per- 
sians were  the  descendants  of  the  Greek  hero  Perseus,  and  hence 
pure  Hellenes,  submission  to  whom  could  not  be  regarded  as 
disgraceful. 

Furthermore,  the  Delphian  oracle,  aristocratical  in  its  sympa- 
thies, and  therefore  influenced  by  the  same  considerations  that  had 
weight  with  the  oligarchical  party,  was  lukewarm  and  wavering,  if 
not  actually  disloyal,  and  by  its  timid  responses  disheartened  the 
patriot  party. 

But  under  the  inspiration  of  Themistocles  the  cities  in  conven- 
tion at  Corinth  determined  upon  desperate  resistance  to  the  Bar- 
barians. They  resolved  that  all  feuds  existing  between  members 
of  the  league  should  be  extinguished,  and  solemnly  bound  them- 
selves, after  the  struggle  should  be  over,  to  make  war  together 
upon  any  and  every  city  that  should  give  aid  to  the  Persians,  and 
to  dedicate  one-tenth  of  the  spoils  to  the  shrine  of  the  Delphian 
Apollo. 

Passing  at  last  to  the  consideration  of  the  question  where  they 
should  make  their  first  stand  against  the  invaders,  it  was  at  first 
decided  to  concentrate  a  strong  force  in  the  Vale  of  Tempe,  and 
at  that  point  to  dispute  the  advance  of  the  enemy ;  but  this  being 
found  impracticable,  it  was  resolved  that  the  first  attempt  to  resist 
the  Persian  march  should  be  made  at  the  pass  of  Thermopylae. 

The  Spartans  were  -given  the  chief  command  of  both  the  land 

^  The  reference,  of  course,  is  to  the  Medes,  by  which  term  the  Greeks 
usually  designated  the  Persians. 


218  THE    GRyECO-PERSIAN    WARS. 

and  the  naval  forces.  The  Athenians  might  fairly  have  insisted 
upon  their  right  to  the  command  of  the  allied  fleet,  but  under  the 
inspiration  of  Themistocles,  they  patriotically  waived  their  claim 
for  the  sake  of  harmony. 

The  Hellespontine  Bridges  Broken.  —  As  the  vast  army  ol 
Xerxes  was  about  to  move  from  Sardis,  intelligence  came  that  the 
bridges  across  the  Hellespont  had  been  wrecked  by  a  violent  tem- 
pest. It  is  said  that  Xerxes,  in  great  wrath,  ordered  the  architects 
to  be  put  to  death,  and  the  sea  to  be  bound  with  fetters  and 
scourged.  The  scourgers  faithfully  performed  their  duty,  at  the 
same  time  gratuitously  cursing  the  traitorous  and  rebellious  Helles- 
pont with  what  Herodotus  calls  "  non-Hellenic  and  blasphemous 
terms." 

Other  architects  spanned  the  channel  with  two  stronger  and 
firmer  bridges.  Each  roadway  rested  upon  a  row  of  from  three 
to  four  hundred  vessels,  all  securely  anchored  like  modern  pon- 
toons. The  bridges  were  each  about  one  mile  in  length,  and  fur- 
nished with  high  parapets,  that  the  horses  and  cattle  might  not  be 
rendered  uneasy  at  sight  of  the  water. 

Passage  of  the  Hellespont.  —  With  the  first  indications  of  the 
opening  spring  of  480  B.C.,  just  ten  years  after  the  defeat  at  Mara- 
thon, the  vast  Persian  army  was  astir  and  concentrating  from  all 
points  upon  the  Hellespont.  The  passage  of  this  strait,  as  pictured 
to  us  in  the  inimitable  narration  of  Herodotus,  is  one  of  the  most 
dramatic  of  all  the  spectacles  afforded  by  history. 

Before  the  passage  commenced,  the  bridges  were  strewn  with 
the  sacred  myrtle  and  perfumed  with  incense  from  golden  censers, 
while  the  sea  was  placated  with  libations  poured  by  the  king  himself. 
As  the  east  reddened  with  the  approach  of  the  sun,  prayers  were 
offered,  and  the  moment  the  rays  of  Hehos  touched  the  bridges 
the  passage  began.  To  avoid  accidents  and  delays,  the  trains  of 
baggage  wagons  and  the  beasts  of  burden  crossed  by  one  cause- 
way, leaving  the  other  free  for  the  march  of  the  army.  The  first 
of  the  host  to  cross  were  the  sacred  guard  of  the  Great  King,  the 
Ten  Thousand  Immortals,  all  crowned  with  garlands  as  in  festival 


THE  REVIEW  AND    CENSUS.  219 

procession.  Preceding  the  king,  moved  slowly  the  gorgeous  Char- 
iot of  the  Sun,  drawn  by  eight  milk-white  steeds.  Herodotus 
affirms  that  for  seven  days  and  seven  nights  the  bridges  groaned 
beneath  the  living  tide  that  Asia  was  pouring  into  Europe. 

The  Review  and  Census.  —  Upon  an  extended  plain  called 
Doriscus,  on  the  European  shore,  Xerxes  drew  up  his  vast  army 
for  review  and  census.  It  was  the  largest  armament  that  the  world 
had  yet  gathered  for  any  enterprise.  To  Herodotus  it  seemed 
that  all  Asia  and  Africa  were  there  seeking  the  ruin  of  Greece. 
Forty-six  different  nations  marched  beneath  the  ensign  of  the  Per- 
sian king.  The  costumes  and  equipments  of  the  different  contin- 
gents were  as  varied  as  the  countries  whence  they  came.  There 
was  every  variety  of  dress,  from  the  light  cotton  tunic  of  the  native 
of  India  to  the  leopard-skin  in  which  the  Ethiopian  wrapped  his 
body.  Some  were  clad  in  bronze  armor;  others  offered  their 
naked  bodies  to  the  blows  of  the  enemy.  The  weapons  borne 
varied  from  the  well-tempered  blade  of  Damascus  to  the  fire- 
hardened  stave  of  the  Libyan.  Some  of  the  nomadic  horsemen 
were  armed  simply  with  the  lasso. 

The  countless  host  could  be  numbered  in  no  usual  way.  Ten 
thousand  men  were  crowded  in  as  close  a  body  as  possible  and 
a  low  wall  raised  about  them.  Then  these  passed  out  of  the 
enclosure,  which  was  again  packed  with  soldiers,  and  when  no 
more  could  find  room,  it  was  calculated  that  ten  thousand  were 
within.  One  hundred  and  seventy  times  was  the  enclosure  thus 
filled  and  emptied.  According  to  this  rude  enumeration,  the  land 
force  of  Xerxes  amounted  to  1,700,000  men.  The  naval  force 
brought  the  number  up  to  the  amazing  total  of  2,317,000.  He- 
rodotus adds  to  this  about  an  equal  number  of  slaves  and  attend- 
ants, making  the  entire  host  number  between  five  and  six  million 
persons.  It  is  believed  that  these  figures  are  greatly  exaggerated, 
and  that  the  actual  number  of  the  Persian  army  could  not  have 
exceeded  900,000  men. 

Provisioning  the  Persian  Army.  —  From  the  plain  of  Doriscus 
the   Persian  army  moved  on  towards  the  Pass  of  Thermopylae. 


220  THE    GRMCO-PERSIAN    WARS. 

The  cities  along  the  route  had  been  ordered  to  prepare  repasts 
for  the  army  as  it  advanced,  and  to  furnish  special  delicacies  for 
the  royal  table.  The  people,  through  policy  or  fear,  made  ex- 
traordinary efforts  to  entertain  in  a  becoming  manner  their  self- 
imposed  guest,  and  to  feed  his  soldiers.  Herodotus  affirms,  and 
there  seems  no  reason  to  doubt  his  statement,  that  some  of  the 
towns  were  driven  to  distraction,  and  others  to  the  very  verge  of 
ruin.  The  people,  however,  notwithstanding  their  perplexity  and 
distress,  found  occasion  to  thank  the  gods  because  Xerxes,  accord- 
ing to  the  Persian  custom,  required  but  one  meal  a  day.  "Had 
the  monarch  required  breakfast  as  well  as  dinner,"  says  Herodo- 
tus, "  the  citizens  must  have  been  reduced  to  the  alternative  either 
of  exile  or  of  utter  destitution." 

Battle  of  Thermopylae  (480  b.c).  —  Leading  from  Thessaly 
into  Central  Greece  is  a  narrow  pass,  pressed  on  one  side  by  the 
sea  and  on  the  other  by  rugged  mountain  ridges.  At  the  foot  of 
the  cliffs  break  forth  several  hot  springs,  whence  the  name  of  the 
pass,  Thermopylae,  or  "Hot  Gates." 

At  this  point,  in  accordance  with  the  decision  of  the  Corinthian 
Congress,  was  offered  the  first  resistance  to  the  progress  of  the 
Persian  army.  Leonidas,  king  of  Sparta,  with  three  hundred 
Spartan  soldiers  and  about  six  thousand  allies  from  different  states 
of  Greece,  held  the  pass.  As  the  Greeks  were  about  to  celebrate 
the  Olympian  games,  which  their  religious  scruples  would  not 
allow  them  to  postpone,  they  left  this  handful  of  men  unsup- 
ported to  hold  in  check  the  army  of  Xerxes  until  the  festival  days 
were  past.^ 

By  a  special  interposition  of  the  gods,  as  it  seemed  to  the  pious 
Greeks,  a  furious  tempest  drove  the  Persian  fleet  upon  the  shore 
and  dashed  to  pieces  over  four  hundred  ships.  This  prevented 
Xerxes  from  landing  a  force  farther  down  the  coast,  in  the  rear 

1  Grote  likens  the  action  of  the  Greeks  at  this  time  to  that  of  the  Jews,  who, 
when  Jerusalem  was  being  besieged  by  the  Romans  under  Titus,  rather  than 
violate  their  religious  scruples,  permitted  the  Roman  works  to  be  pushed  for- 
ward against  their  city  during  the  Sabbath,  without  molestation. 


THE  BATTLE    OF  ARTEMTSIUM.  221 

of  Leonidas ;  for  that  movement  was  now  hindered  by  a  Grecian 
fleet  of  sixty  thousand  men,  which,  encouraged  by  the  Persian 
losses,  had  advanced  to  Artemisium,  at  the  extreme  northern  point 
of  the  island  of  Euboea. 

The  Spartans  could  now  be  driven  from  their  advantageous 
position,  only  by  an  attack  in  front. ^  Before  assaulting  them, 
Xerxes  summoned  them  to  give  up  their  arms.  The  answer  of 
Leonidas  was,  "  Come  and  take  them." 

For  two  days  the  Persians  tried  to  storm  the  pass.  The  Asi- 
atics were  driven  to  the  attack  by  their  officers  armed  with  whips. 
But  every  attempt  to  force  the  way  was  repulsed ;  even  the  Ten 
Thousand  Immortals  were  hurled  back  from  the  Spartan  front  like 
waves  from  a  cliff. 

But  an  act  of  treachery  on  the  part  of  a  native  Greek  rendered 
unavailing  all  the  bravery  of  the  keepers  of  the  pass.  A  by-way 
leading  over  the  mountains  to  the  rear  of  the  Spartans  was 
revealed  to  Xerxes.  The  starding  intelligence  was  brought  to 
Leonidas  that  the  Persians  were  descending  the  mountain  path 
in  his  rear.  He  saw  instantly  that  all  was  lost.  The  allies  were 
permitted  to  seek  safety  in  flight  while  opportunity  remained.  But 
to  him  and  his  Spartan  companions  there  could  be  no  thought  of 
retreat.  Death  in  the  pass,  the  defence  of  which  had  been 
intrusted  to  them,  was  all  that  Spartan  honor  and  Spartan  law  now 
left  them.  The  next  day,  surrounded  by  the  Persian  host,  they 
fought  with  desperate  valor ;  but,  being  overwhelmed  finally  by 
mere  numbers,  they  were  slain  to  the  last  man.  With  them  also 
perished  seven  hundred  Thespians  who  had  chosen  death  with 
their  companions.  Over  the  bodies  of  the  Spartan  soldiers  a 
monument  vv^as  afterwards  erected  with  this  inscription  :  "  Stran- 
ger, tell  the  Lacedaemonians  that  we  lie  here  in  obedience  to  their 
orders." 

The  Battle  of  Artemisium. — While  Leonidas  and  his  com- 
panions were  so  gallantly  striving  to  hold  in  check  the  land  forces 
of  Xerxes  at  the  Pass  of  Thermopylae,  the  Greek  fleet  at  Arte- 
misium, consisting  of  between  two  and  three  hundred  ships,  was 


222  THE    GRMCO-PERSIAN   WARS. 

endeavoring  with  equal  bravery  to  prevent  the  immense  fleet  of 
the  Persians  from  entering  the  strait  which  runs  between  the  island 
of  Eubcea  and  the  mainland.  During  the  three  days  that  the 
struggle  was  going  on  at  the  pass,  the  Grecian  ships  were  engaging 
the  Persian  naval  forces,  with  indecisive  results ;  but  when  on  the 
evening  of  the  third  day  the  Greeks  received  intelligence  of  the 
loss  of  the  pass,  they  withdrew  from  before  the  enemy,  as  there 
was  now  nothing  to  be  gained  by  holding  the  water  passage  any 
longer.  The  whole  armament  came  to  anchor  in  the  Gulf  of 
Salamis,  near  Athens,  and  awaited  events. 

The  Burning  of  Athens.  —  Athens  now  lay  open  to  the  invad- 
ers. The  inhabitants  of  the  Peloponnesus,  thinking  of  their  own 
safety  simply,  commenced  throwing  up  defences  across  the  narrow 
isthmus  of  Corinth,  working  day  and  night  under  the  impulse  of 
an  almost  insane  fear.  Athens  was  thus  left  outside  to  care  for 
herself. 

Counsels  were  divided.  The  Delphian  oracle  had  obscurely 
declared,  "  When  everything  else  in  the  land  of  Cecrops  shall  be 
taken,  Zeus  grants  to  Athena  that  the  wooden  walls  alone  shall 
remain  unconquered,  to  defend  you  and  your  children."  The 
oracle  was  believed  to  be,  as  was  declared,  "  firm  as  adamant." 
But  there  were  various  opinions  as  to  what  was  meant  by  the 
"wooden  walls."  Some  thought  the  Pythian  priestess  directed 
the  Athenians  to  seek  refuge  in  the  forests  on  the  mountains ; 
others  believed  the  oracle  meant  the  wooden  palisade  which  in 
ancient  times  surrounded  the  Acropolis ;  but  Themistocles  (who 
it  is  thought  may  have  himself  prompted  the  oracle)  contended 
that  the  ships  were  plainly  indicated. 

The  last  interpretation  was  acted  upon.  All  the  soldiers  of 
Attica  were  crowded  upon  the  vessels  of  the  fleet  at  Salamis.  The 
aged  men,  with  the  women  and  children,  were  carried  out  of  the 
country  to  different  places  of  safety.  All  the  towns  of  Attica,  with 
the  capital,  were  thus  abandoned  to  the  conquerors. 

A  few  days  afterwards  the  Persians  entered  upon  the  deserted 
plain,  which  they  rendered  more  desolate  by  ravaging  the  fields 


THE  NAVAL   BATTLE   OF  S A  LA  MIS.  Ill 

and  burning  the  empty  towns.  Athens  shared  the  common  fate, 
and  her  splendid  temples  sank  in  flames.  Sardis  was  avenged. 
The  joy  in  distant  Susa  was  unbounded. 

The  Naval  Battle  of  Salamis  (480  b.c).  —  Just  off  the  coast 
of  Attica,  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  narrow  passage  of 
water,  lies  the  island  of  Salamis.  Here  lay  the  Greek  fleet.  The 
persuasive  eloquence  alone  of  Themistocles  brought  the  Greeks 
to  the  determination  to  face  here  the  Persian  squadrons.  To 
hasten  on  the  Persian  attack  before  dissensions  should  divide  the 
Greek  forces,  Themistocles  resorted  to  the  following  stratagem. 
He  sent  a  messenger  to  Xerxes  representing  that  he  himself  was 
ready  to  espouse  the  Persian  cause,  and  advised  an  immediate 
attack  upon  the  Athenian  fleet,  which  he  represented  as  being  in 
no  condition  to  make  any  formidable  resistance.  Xerxes  was 
deceived.  He  ordered  an  immediate  attack.  From  a  lofty  throne 
upon  the  shore  he  himself  overlooked  the  scene  and  watched  the 
result.  The  Persian  fleet  was  broken  to  pieces  and  two  hundred 
of  the  ships  destroyed.^ 

The  blow  was  decisive.  Xerxes  lost  faith  in  his  undertaking 
and  in  his  allies.  He  feared  that  treachery  might  bum  or  break 
the  Hellespontine  bridges,  and  thus  endanger  his  own  safety.  He 
instantly  despatched  a  hundred  ships  to  protect  them ;  and  then, 
leaving  Mardonius  with  three  hundred  thousand  men  to  retrieve 
the  disaster  of  Salamis,  and  effect,  as  he  promised  to  do,  the  con- 
quest of  the  rest  of  Greece,  the  monarch  set  out  on  his  igno- 
minious retreat  to  Asia.^ 

The  Battles  of  Platsea  and  Mycale  (479  b.c).  — The  next  year 
the  Persian  fleet  and  army  thus  left  behind  in  Europe  were  entirely 
destroyed,  both  on  the    same   day — the  army  at  Plataea,   near 

1  The  entire  Persian  fleet  numbered  about  seven  hundred  and  fifty  vessels; 
the  Grecian,  about  three  hundred  and  eighty-five  ships,  mostly  triremes. 

2  On  the  very  day  of  the  battle  of  Salamis,  Gelon  of  Syracuse  gained  a 
great  victory  over  the  Carthaginians  at  the  battle  of  Himera,  in  the  north  of 
Sicily.  So  it  was  a  memorable  day  for  Hellas  in  the  West  as  well  as  in  the 
East 


224  THE    GR^CO-PERSIAN    WARS. 

Thebes,  by  the  combined  Greek  forces  under  the  Spartan  Pausa- 
nias ;  and  the  fleet,  including  the  Asiatic  land  forces,  at  Mycale, 
on  the  Ionian  coast. 

The  battles  of  Salamis,  Plataea,  and  Mycale  were  the  successive 
blows  that  shattered  into  fragments  the  most  splendid  armaments 
ever  commanded  by  Asiatic  despot. 

Memorials  and  Trophies  of  the  War.  —  The  glorious  issue  of 
the  war  caused  a  general  burst  of  joy  and  exultation  throughout 
all  Greece.  Poets  and  artists  and  orators  all  vied  with  one  another 
in  commemorating  the  deeds  of  the  heroes  whose  valor  had  warded 
off  the  impending  danger. 

Nor  did  the  pious  Grecians  think  that  the  marvellous  deliver- 
ance had  been  effected  without  the  intervention  of  the  gods  in 
their  behalf.  To  the  temple  at  Delphi  was  gratefully  consecrated 
a  tenth  of  the  immense  spoils  in  gold  and  silver  from  the  field  of 
Platsea ;  and  within  the  sanctuary  of  Athena,  upon  the  Acropolis 
at  Athens,  were  placed  the  broken  cables  of  the  Hellespontine 
bridges,  at  once  a  proud  trophy  of  victory,  and  a  signal  illustration 
of  the  divine  punishment  that  had  befallen  the  audacious  and  im- 
pious attempt  to  lay  a  yoke  upon  the  sacred  waters  of  the  Helles- 
pont- 


I^OYALTV  OF  ATHENS    TO    THE    GRECIAN  CAUSE.     22S 


CHAPTER   VI. 

PERIOD   OF  ATHENIAN   SUPREMACY. 

(479-431    B.C.) 

Loyalty  of  Athens  to  the  Grecian  Cause.  —  Athens  had  braved 
everything  for  the  common  cause  of  Hellas.  The  patriotism  of 
her  citizens  had  never  wavered.  When  Mardonius  sought  with 
bribes  to  detach  them  from  the  Grecian  league,  they  replied  to 
his  messenger  that  "  no  conceivable  temptation,  either  of  money 
or  territory,  should  induce  them  to  desert  the  ties  of  brotherhood, 
common  language,  or  religion." 

Their  lofty  patriotism  and  unswerving  loyalty  to  the  general  in- 
terests of  Greece  —  in  striking  contrast  to  the  narrow  selfishness 
of  the  Spartans  —  were  now  rewarded.  Athens  was  accorded  the 
place  of  honor  and  pre-eminence  among  the  Grecian  states.  The 
loss  and  suffering  entailed  by  the  destruction  of  her  dwellings  and 
temples  were  repaired  and  forgotten  during  the  period  of  prosper- 
ity upon  which  she  now  entered.  Her  maritime  power,  and  her 
reputation  as  a  center  of  wealth  and  refinement  and  the  home  of 
art  and  literature,  were  secured  by  the  address  and  genius  of  a 
succession  of  statesmen,  artists,  and  writers  such  as  perhaps  no 
other  city  in  ancient  or  modern  times  ever  produced.  The  im- 
portant public  events  that  fill  the  period  intervening  between  the 
batde  of  Plataea  and  the  breaking  out  of  the  Peloponnesian  War 
(479-431  B.C.)  will  be  found,  as  we  now  proceed  to  narrate  them 
in  the  very  briefest  way,  to  connect  themselves  especially  with  four 
names  of  the  widest  renown  —  Themistocles,  Aristides,  Cimon,  and 
Pericles. 

Rebuilding  the  Walls  of  Athens.  —  After  the  Persians  had  been 
expelled  from  Greece,  the  first  care  of  the  Athenians  was  the 


226  PERIOD    OF  ATHENIAN  SUPREMACY. 

rebuilding  of  their  homes.  Their  next  task  was  the  restoration  ot 
the  city  walls.  The  exalted  hopes  for  the  future  which  had  been 
raised  by  the  almost  incredible  achievements  and  endurance  of 
the  past  few  months,  led  the  Athenians  to  draw  a  vast  circuit  of 
seven  miles  about  the  Acropolis  as  the  line  of  the  new  ramparts. 

The  rival  states  of  the  Peloponnesus  watched  the  proceedings 
of  the  Athenians  with  the  most  jealous  interest.  While  they  could 
not  but  admire  Athens,  they  feared  her.  Sparta  sent  an  embassy 
to  dissuade  the  citizens  from  rebuilding  the  walls,  hypocritically 
assigmng  as  the  cause  of  her  interest  in  the  matter  her  solicitude 
lest,  in  case  of  another  Persian  invasion,  the  city,  if  captured, 
might  become  a  shelter  and  defence  to  the  enemy. 

Themistocles  as  an  Envoy.  — The  crafty  Themistocles,  the  Ulys- 
ses of  Athens,  and  the  most  popular  leader  of  his  time,  had  a 
talent  for  just  such  diplomacy  as  the  case  seemed  to  demand ;  for 
the  Athenians  were  not  strong  enough  to  insist  by  force  of  arms 
upon  their  right  to  manage  their  own  affairs.  Themistocles  caused 
the  Spartan  envoys  to  be  sent  home  with  the  reply  that  Athens 
would  send  commissioners  to  Sparta  to  consider  the  matter  with 
them  there.  Then,  as  one  of  the  envoys,  he  himself  set  out  for 
Sparta,  having  previously  arranged  that  the  other  members  of  the 
embassy  should  not  leave  Athens  until  the  walls  were  sufficiently 
advanced  to  defy  assault.  With  astonishing  unanimity  and  energy, 
the  entire  population  of  Athens,  rich  and  poor,  men,  women,  and 
children,  set  to  work  upon  the  walls.  Material  was  torn  from  tem- 
ples and  tombs  and  built  into  the  defences. 

While  this  was  going  on  at  Athens,  Themistocles  was  at  Sparta, 
with  amazing  address  wondering  with  the  Lacedaemonians  what  so 
delayed  his  colleagues.  From  day  to  day  the  business  upon  which 
he  had  come  was  postponed,  to  give  time  for  the  arrival  of  the 
tardy  envoys.  At  length  rumors  came  to  Sparta  of  the  state  of 
affairs  at  Athens.  Themistocles  assured  the  people  that  these 
were  mere  idle  reports.  Fresh  rumors  came.  Then  he  advised 
them  to  send  messengers  of  their  own  to  Athens  to  get  the  truth 
of  the  matter.     They  did  so.     But  Themistocles  had  already  de- 


NAVAL  POLICY  OF  THE   ATHENIANS.  227 

spatched  a  messenger  to  the  Athenians  informing  them  that  the 
Spartan  envoys  were  on  the  way,  and  ordering  their  detention  in 
Athens. 

By  all  these  stratagems  sufficient  time  was  gained  to  raise  the 
walls  to  such  a  height  that  the  Athenians  could  defy  interference. 
Then  Themistocles  boldly  administered  some  "  wholesome  advice 
to  the  Spartans.  He  told  them,  when  they  and  their  allies  sent 
ambassadors  again  to  Athens,  to  deal  with  the  Athenians  as  with 
reasonable  men,  who  could  discern  what  belonged  to  their  own 
interest,  and  what  to  the  general  interest  of  Greece." 

These  circumstances  attendant  upon  the  refortifying  of  the  Athe- 
nian capital  we  have  narrated  at  some  length,  because  of  the  light 
they  throw  upon  the  succeeding  history  of  Athens.  They  exhibit 
the  tremendous  energy  with  which  the  memory  of  the  recent  great 
events  of  the  Persian  War  inspired  the  Athenians.  As  Grote 
observes,  both  arm  and  mind  were  strung  to  the  very  highest  pitch. 
It  was  this  tension,  calling  forth  the  very  best  in  every  man,  that 
carried  forward  events  at  Athens  with  such  almost  preternatural 
energy  during  the  generation  immediately  following  that  great 
struggle. 

This  contention  respecting  the  walls  of  Athens  also  affords  us  a 
glimpse  of  the  rising  jealousy  between  Sparta  and  Athens,  which 
at  last,  intensified  by  their  different  political  tendencies,  issued  in 
that  long  and  calamitous  struggle  between  these  two  rival  states 
and  their  allies,  known  as  the  Peloponnesian  War. 

Naval  Policy  of  the  Athenians.  —  Eminent  as  was  the  service 
which  Themistocles  had  rendered  his  native  city  in  the  conduct 
of  the  Spartan  negotiations,  he  now  conferred  a  still  greater  benefit 
by  the  exercise  of  his  prudence  and  genius  in  the  shaping  of  the 
naval  policy  of  the  ambitious  Athenians. 

This  far-sighted  statesman  saw  clearly  that  Athens'  supremacy 
among  the  Grecian  states  must  be  secured  and  maintained  by  her 
mastery  of  the  sea.  He  had  unbounded  visions  of  the  maritime 
power  and  glory  that  might  come  to  her  through  her  fleet,  those 
"  wooden  walls  "  to  which  at  this  moment  she  owed  her  very  exist- 


228  PERIOD    OF  ATHENIAN  SUPREMACY. 

ence ;  and  he  succeeded  in  inspiring  his  countrymen  with  his 
own  enthusiasm  and  sanguine  hopes. 

In  the  prosecution  of  his  views,  Themistocles  persuaded  the 
Athenians  to  enlarge  the  harbor  of  Piraeus,  the  most  spacious  of 
the  three  ports  of  Athens,  and  to  surround  the  place  with  immense 
walls,  far  exceeding,  both  in  compass  and  strength,  those  of  the 
capital.  He  also  led  his  countrymen  to  the  resolution  of  adding 
each  year  twenty  well-equipped  triremes  to  their  navy. 

This  policy,  initiated  by  Themistocles,  was,  as  we  shall  see,  zeal- 
ously pursued  by  the  statesmen  that  after  him  successively  assumed 
the  lead  in  Athenian  affairs. 

Character  of  Themistocles. — Themistocles  well  deserved  the 
honor  of  being  called,  as  he  was,  the  founder  of  the  New  Athens. 
But  although  a  great  and  far-seeing  statesman,  to  whose  command- 
ing ability  both  in  war  and  in  peace  Athens  owed  almost  everything, 
still  those  imperfections  of  character  which  we  cannot  have  failed 
to  notice,  at  last  brought  him  into  disgrace.  He  used  unscru- 
pulously the  power  and  position  which  his  abilities  and  services 
secured  him.  He  accepted  bribes  and  sold  his  influence,  thereby 
acquiring  an  enormous  property.  Finally  he  was  ostracized  and 
went  into  exile  (471  B.C.).  xA.fter  long  wanderings,  he  became  a 
resident  at  the  court  of  the  Persian  king. 

Tradition  affirms  that  Artaxerxes,  in  accordance  with  Persian 
usage,  provided  for  the  courtier  exile  by  assigning  to  three  cities 
in  Asia  Minor  the  care  of  providing  for  his  table  :  one  furnished 
bread,  a  second  meat,  and  a  third  wines.  It  is  told  that  one  day, 
as  he  sat  down  to  his  richly  loaded  board,  he  exclaimed,  "  How 
much  we  should  have  lost,  my  children,  if  we  had  not  been 
ruined  !  "     He  died  about  449  B.C. 

Aristides  the  Just.  —  The  most  illustrious  contemporary  and 
rival  of  Themistocles  was  Aristides,  to  whom  reference  has  already 
been  made  (see  p.  215).  Less  great  in  mind  than  Themistocles, 
he  was  immeasurably  his  superior  in  character.  Before  the  time 
of  which  we  are  treating,  he  had  already  rendered  many  and  emi- 
nent services  to  his  native  state.     He  was  one  of  the  ten  Athenian 


THE    CONFEDERACY   OF  DELOS.  229 

generals  that  led  the  Grecian  forces  at  Marathon.  Not  long  after 
that  battle,  his  rival,  Themistocles,  as  we  have  narrated,  secured 
against  him  a  decree  of  ostracism. 

With  a  spirit  just  the  opposite  of  that  evinced  by  the  Roman 
Camillus,  who,  when  banished  by  his  countrymen,  invoked  the 
gods  to  send  such  calamities  upon  them  that  they  would  speedily 
pray  for  his  return,  the  patriot  Aristides  went  into  exile  praying 
the  gods  that  nothing  might  befall  his  native  city  which  should 
cause  those  that  had  procured  his  banishment  to  mourn  his 
absence.  Nevertheless,  such  an  event  soon  did  occur.  Only  six 
years  had  passed  when  the  threatening  danger  of  the  invasion  by 
Xerxes  led  to  his  recall  by  the  Athenians,  to  aid  Themistocles  in 
the  defence  of  the  state.  He  fought  at  Salamis  and  Platsea,  and, 
after  the  retreat  of  the  Persians,  became  at  Athens  the  rival  of 
Themistocles  in  popular  favor  and  esteem.  It  was  the  universal 
confidence  inspired  by  his  uprightness  of  character  that  enabled 
him  to  secure  for  his  native  city  that  supremacy  in  the  foreign 
affairs  of  Hellas  which  had  been  hitherto  accorded  to  Sparta 
alone.  How  this  came  about  will  appear  in  the  following  para- 
graphs. 

The  Confederacy  of  Delos  (477  b.c).  —  In  order  that  they 
might  be  able  to  carry  on  war  more  effectively  against  the  Per- 
sians, —  who  for  a  long  time  after  the  disastrous  expedition  of 
Xerxes  never  ceased,  by  intrigue  and  open  force,  to  vex  the  Gre- 
cian communities, — the  Ionian  states  of  Asia  Minor,  the  islands  of 
the  ^gean,  and  some  of  the  states  in  Greece  proper,  mostly  north 
of  the  Isthmus,  shortly  after  the  battle  of  Plataea,  formed  them- 
selves into  what  is  known  as  the  Confederacy  of  Delos.  Sparta, 
on  account  of  her  military  reputation,  had  hitherto  been  accorded 
the  place  of  pre-eminence  and  authority  in  all  such  alliances  of  the 
Hellenic  cities.  She  had  come,  indeed,  to  regard  herself  as  the 
natural  guardian  and  leader  of  Greece.  But  at  this  time  the  un- 
bearable arrogance  of  the  Spartan  general  Pausanias,^  who  presumed 

1  Pausanias  was  not  only  arrogant,  but  treacherous.  It  came  to  light  after- 
ward that  he  was  at  that   moment  engaged  in  treasonable  negotiations  with 


230  PERIOD    OF  ATHENIAN  SUPREMACY. 

upon  the  great  reputation  he  had  gained  at  the  battle  of  Plataea, 
led  the  states  which  had  entered  into  the  alliance  to  look  to 
Athens  to  assume  the  position  of  leadership  in  the  new  confed- 
eracy. 

The  lofty  character  of  Aristides,  who  was  now  the  most  promi- 
nent Athenian  leader,  and  his  great  reputation  for  fairness  and  in- 
corruptible integrity,  also  contributed  to  the  same  result.  He  was 
chosen  the  first  president  of  the  league  (477  B.C.),  and  the 
sacred  island  of  Delos  was  made  the  repository  of  the  common 
funds.  What  proportion  of  the  ships  and  money  needed  for  car- 
rying out  the  purposes  of  the  union  should  be  contributed  by  the 
different  states,  was  left  entirely  to  the  decision  of  Aristides,  such 
was  the  confidence  all  had  in  his  equity ;  and  so  long  as  he  had 
control  of  the  matter,  none  of  the  members  of  the  alliance  ever 
had  cause  of  complaint. 

Thus  did  Sparta  lose,  and  Athens  gain,  the  place  of  precedence 
among  the  Ionian  states.  The  Dorian  states  of  the  Peloponnesus, 
in  the  main,  still  looked  to  Sparta  as  their  leader  and  adviser.  All 
Greece  was  thus  divided  into  two  great  leagues,  under  the  rival 
leadership  of  Sparta  and  Athens. 

The  Athenians  convert  the  Delian  League  into  an  Empire.  — 
The  Confederacy  of  Delos  laid  the  basis  of  the  imperial  power  of 
Athens.  The  Athenians  misused  their  authority  as  leaders  of  the 
league,  and  gradually,  during  the  interval  between  the  formation 
of  the  union  and  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  reduced 
their  free  and  independent  confederates  to  the  condition  of  tribu- 
taries. 

Xerxes,  and  was  teady,  for  a  suitable  reward,  to  surrender  all  Greece  into  the 
hands  of  the  Persians.  The  well-known  letter  in  which  he  is  made  to  seek 
as  the  price  of  his  treachery  the  hand  of  the  daughter  of  Xerxes  is,  it  is  true, 
by  some  pronounced  a  forgery;  but  then  there  is  no  doubt  of  his  treasonable 
intentions.  His  fate  befitted  his  crime.  To  avoid  arrest  by  the  ephors,  he 
fled  for  refuge  to  the  sanctuary  of  Athena  at  Sparta.  The  ephors,  not  daring 
to  seize  him  there,  caused  the  roof  of  the  temple  to  be  removed,  and  walling 
up  the  entrance,  left  the  traitor  to  die  of  starvation. 


GROWTH  OF   THE   ATHENIAN  EMPIRE.  231 

Athens  transformed  the  league  into  an  empire  in  the  following 
manner.  The  contributions  assessed  by  Aristides  upon  the  differ- 
ent members  of  the  confederation,  consisted  of  ships  and  their 
crews  for  the  larger  states,  and  of  money  payments  for  the 
smaller  ones.  From  the  first,  Athens  attended  to  this  assessment 
matter,  and  saw  to  it  that  each  member  of  the  league  made  its 
proper  contribution. 

After  a  while,  some  of  the  cities  preferring  to  make  a  money 
payment  in  lieu  of  ships,  Athens  accepted  the  commutation,  and 
then  building  the  ships  herself,  added  them  to  her  own  navy. 
Thus  the  confederates  disarmed  themselves  and  armed  their 
master. 

Very  soon  the  restraints  which  Athens  imposed  upon  her  allies 
became  irksome,  and  they  began  to  refuse,  one  after  another,  to 
pay  the  assessment  in  any  form.  Naxos,  one  of  the  Cyclades, 
was  the  first  island  to  secede,  as  it  were,  from  the  league  (466 
B.C.) .  But  Athens  had  no  idea  of  admitting  any  such  doctrine  of 
state  rights,  and  with  her  powerful  navy  forced  the  Naxians  to 
remain  within  the  union,  and  to  pay  an  increased  tribute. 

What  happened  in  the  case  of  Naxos  happened  in  the  case  of 
almost  all  the  other  members  of  the  confederation.  By  the  year 
449  B.C.  only  three  of  the  island  members  of  the  league  still 
retained  their  independence. 

Even  before  this  date  (probably  about  457  B.C.)  the  Athenians 
had  transferred  the  common  treasury  from  Delos  to  Athens,  and 
diverting  the  tribute  from  its  original  purpose,  were  beginning  to 
spend  it,  not  in  the  prosecution  of  war  against  the  Barbarians,  but 
in  the  execution  of  home  enterprises,  as  though  the  treasure  were 
their  own  revenue. 

Thus  what  had  been  simply  a  voluntary  confederation  of  sov- 
ereign and  independent  cities,  was  converted  into  what  was  prac- 
tically an  absolute  monarchy,  with  the  Attic  democracy  as  the 
imperial  master. 

What  made  this  servitude  of  the  former  allies  of  Athens  all  the 
more  galling  was  the  fact  that  they  themselves   had  been  com- 


232  PERIOD    OF  ATHENIAN  SUPREMACY. 

pelled  to  forge  the  very  chains  which  fettered  them ;  for  it  was 
their  money  that  had  built  and  was  maintaining  the  fleet  by  which 
they  were  kept  in  subjection  and  forced  to  do  whatever  might  be 
the  will  of  the  Athenians. 

The  Leadership  of  Cimon.  —  One  of  the  ablest  and  most  dis- 
tinguished of  the  generals  who  commanded  the  forces  of  the 
Athenians  during  this  same  period  when  they  were  enslaving  their 
confederates,  was  Cimon,  the  son  of  Miltiades.  He  was  one  of 
those  whose  spirits  had  been  fired  by  the  exciting  events  attendant 
upon  the  Persian  invasion.  He  had  called  attention  to  himselt 
and  acquired  a  certain  reputation,  at  the  time  of  the  abandon- 
ment of  Athens,  by  being  the  first  to  hang  up  his  bridle  in  the 
sanctuary  of  the  Acropolis,  thus  expressing  his  resolution  to  place 
all  his  confidence  in  the  fleet,  as  Themistocles  advised. 

After  the  expulsion  of  the  Persians  from  Greece,  he  became  one 
of  the  most  successful  of  the  Grecian  generals  to  whom  was 
intrusted  the  command  of  the  armaments  designed  to  wrest  from 
the  hands  of  the  enemy  the  islands  of  the  ^gean  and  the  He41enic 
cities  of  the  Asiatic  coast. 

The  rich  spoils  of  his  many  victories  over  the  Persians,  the 
most  important  of  which  was  that  at  the  mouth  of  the  Eurymedon, 
in  Pamphylia  (465  B.C.),  enabled  him  to  fill  the  treasury  of 
Athens,  and  also  to  build  up  an  ample  fortune  for  himself.  His 
private  means  he  dispensed  with  a  lavish  hand  in  benefactions  to 
the  poor,  in  the  erection  of  magnificent  public  buildings,  and  in 
the  beautifying  of  the  public  walks  and  parks  of  Athens.  The 
Academy,  the  favorite  resort  of  the  Athenians,  owed  much  of  its 
beauty  to  his  munificence. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  ceremonies  in  which  he  took  a 
leading  part  was  the  removal  of  what  was  declared  to  be  the  bones 
of  the  national  hero  Theseus  from  the  island  of  Scyros,  where  the 
exiled  king  is  fabled  to  have  died,  to  a  place  of  entombment  at 
Athens.  Over  the  sacred  relics  was  erected  a  magnificent  temple, 
which  some  archaeologists  believe  to  be  identical  with  the  remark- 
ably well-preserved  building  near  the  Areopagus,  known  as  the 
Theseum. 


CIMON'S  LOSS    OF  FAVOR.  233 

Revolt  of  the  Helots  ;  Cimon's  Loss  of  Favor.  —  The  popularity 
of  Cimon  at  last  dedined,  and  he  suffered  ostracism,  as  had 
Aristides  and  Themistocles  before  him. 

Cimon's  loss  of  public  favor  came  about  in  this  manner.  In 
the  year  464  B.C.,  a  terrible  earthquake  destroyed  a  large  portion 
of  Sparta,  and  buried  a  vast  number  of  the  inhabitants  beneath 
the  ruins  of  their  city.  In  the  panic  of  the  appalling  disaster  the 
Spartans  were  led  to  believe  that  the  evil  had  befallen  them  as  a 
punishment  for  their  recent  violation  of  the  Temple  of  Poseidon, 
from  which  some  Helots  who  had  fled  to  the  sanctuary  for  refuge 
had  been  torn.  The  Helots,  on  their  part,  were  quick  to  interpret 
the  event  as  an  intervention  of  the  gods  in  their  behalf,  and  as  an 
unmistakable  signal  for  their  uprising.  Everywhere  they  flew  to 
arms,  and,  being  joined  by  some  of  the  Perioeci,  furiously  attacked 
their  masters.  The  Spartans,  after  maintaining  the  bitter  struggle 
for  several  years,  finding  themselves  unable  to  reduce  their  former 
slaves  to  submission,  were  forced  to  ask  aid  of  the  other  Grecian 
states. 

The  great  Athenian  statesman  Pericles  implored  his  countrymen 
not  to  lend  themselves  to  the  building  up  of  the  power  of  their 
rival.  But  the  aristocratic  Cimon,  who  had  always  entertained 
the  most  friendly  feelings  for  the  Spartans,  exhorted  the  Athenians 
to  put  aside  all  sentiments  of  enmity  or  jealousy,  and  to  extend 
succor  to  their  kinsmen  in  this  desperate  posture  of  their  affairs. 
"  Let  not  Greece,"  said  he,  "  be  lamed,  and  thus  Athens  herself 
be  deprived  of  her  yokefellow."  The  great  services  Cimon  had 
rendered  the  state  entitled  him  to  be  heard.  The  assembly  voted 
as  he  advised,  and  so  the  Athenian  forces  fought  for  some  time 
side  by  side  with  the  Lacedaemonians. 

But  the  Spartans  were  distrustful  of  the  sincerity  of  their  allies, 
and  this  feeling  gradually  grew  into  positive  fear  lest  the  Athenians 
should  take  advantage  of  their  position  in  the  country  and  pass 
over  to  the  side  of  the  Helots.  Acting  under  this  apprehension, 
which  was  probably  entirely  groundless,  they  dismissed  the  Athe- 
nian forces.     The  discourtesy  of  the  act  aroused  the  most  bitter 


234  PERIOD    OF  ATHENIAN  SUPREMACY. 

resentment  at  Athens.  The  party  of  Pericles,  which  had  ahvays 
opposed  the  resolution  of  aiding  their  rivals  as  impolitic  and 
weakly  sentimental,  took  advantage  of  the  exasperated  feelings  of 
the  people  to  effect  some  important  changes  in  the  constitution  in 
favor  of  the  people,  which  made  it  almost  purely  democratical 
in  character,^  and  to  secure  the  exercise  of  the  ostracism  against 
Cimon  as  the  leader  of  the  aristocratical  party  and  the  friend  of 
Sparta  (459  B.C.). 

The  Age  of  Pericles  (459-431  B.C.). 

General  Features  of  the  Age. — Under  the  inspiration  of  Per- 
icles, the  Athenian  state  now  entered  upon  the  most  brilliant  period 
of  its  history.  The  epoch  embraces  less  than  the  lifetime  of  a 
single  generation,  yet  its  influence  upon  the  civilization  of  the 
world  can  hardly  be  overrated.  During  this  short  period  Athens 
gave  birth  to  more  great  men  —  poets,  artists,  statesmen,  and 
philosophers  —  than  all  the  world  besides  has  produced  in  any 
period  of  equal  length. 

Among  all  the  great  men  of  this  age,  Pericles  stood  pre-eminent. 
Such  was  the  impression  left  by  his  commanding  statesmanship, 
his  persuasive  eloquence,  and  his  almost  universal  genius,  upon  the 
period  in  which  he  lived,  that  it  is  called  after  him  the  Periclean 
Age.^    Yet  though  Pericles'  power  at  Athens  was  almost  absolute, 

1  These  reforms  were  as  follows :  The  court  of  the  Areopagus,  the  strong- 
hold of  the  aristocracy,  was  stripped  of  most  of  its  censorial  powers,  wliich, 
with  its  judicial  functions,  were  conferred  upon  courts  (called  dicastei-ies)  each 
composed  of  five  hundred  citizens.  This  change  transferred  the  most  impor- 
tant functions  of  the  state  from  an  aristocratical  body  to  the  people  at  large. 
The  senate  of  five  hundred  was  also  deprived  of  the  greater  part  of  its  judicial 
powers.  Ephialtes,  the  friend  and  supporter  of  Pericles,  further  caused  the 
tablets  of  Solon's  laws,  which  had  been  kept  upon  the  Acropolis,  to  be  brought 
down  into  the  agora,  as  a  symbol  of  the  fact  that  the  preservation  and  main- 
tenance of  the  constitution  was  now  intrusted  to  the  people. 

~  This  phrase  is  often  loosely  applied  to  the  entire  period  of  Athenian 
supremacy,  . 


PERICLES  FOSTERS  THE  NA  VAL  PO  WER  OF  A  THENS.     235 


Still  this  authority  was  simply  that  which  talent  and  character 
justly  confer.  He  ruled,  as  Plutarch  says,  by  the  art  of  persua- 
sion.^ 

During  the  Periclean  period  the  Athenian  democracy  was 
supreme.  The  democratic  consti- 
tution, the  basis  of  which  had  been 
laid  by  Solon  and  broadened  by 
Cleisthenes,  was  completed  by  the 
reforms  to  which  we  have  already 
referred  (seep.  234, note).  Every 
matter  that  concerned  the  empire  - 
was  discussed  and  decided  by  the 
popular  assembly.  Never  before 
had  any  people  enjoyed  such  per- 
fect political  liberty  as  did  the  citi- 
zens of  Athens  at  this  time,  and 
never  before  were  any  people, 
through  so  intimate  a  knowledge 
of  public   affairs,   so  well   able   to 

direct  the  policies  of  state.  Every  citizen,  it  is  affirmed,  was 
qualified  to  hold  civil  office. 

Pericles  fosters  the  Naval  Power  of  Athens. — Cimon's  pol- 
icy had  been  to  keep  the  Grecian  cities  united  in  order  that  they 
might  offer  effectual  resistance  to  the  Persian  power.  The  aim  of 
his  rival  Pericles  was  to  maintain  Athens  as  the  leading  state  in 
Hellas,  and  to  oppose  the  pretensions  of  Sparta.  Accordingly  he 
encouraged  the  Athenians  to  strengthen  their  naval  armament  and 
to  perfect  themselves  in  naval  discipline,  for  with  Themistocles  he 
was  convinced  that  Athens'  supremacy  must  depend  chiefly  upon 
her  fleet. 

As  a  part  of  his  maritime  policy,  Pericles  persuaded  the  Athe- 
nians to  build  what  were  known  as  the  Long  Walls-  (about  457- 

1  The  only  offices  he  held  were  those  of  strategus  (see  p.  207),  Superinten- 
dent of  Public  Works,  and  Superintendent  of  the  Finances. 

2  The  Long  Walls  were  each  between  four  and  five  miles  in  length,  and 


PERICLES 


236 


PERIOD    OF  ATHENIAN  SUPREMACY. 


455  B.C.),  which  united  Athens  to  the  ports  of  Piraeus  and  Pha- 
lerum.  Later  (445  B.C.),  as  a  double  security,  a  third  wall  was 
built  parallel  to  the  one  running  to  the  former  harbor.  By  means 
of  these  great  ramparts  Athens  and  her  ports,  with  the  intervening 
land,  were  converted  into  a  vast  fortified  district,  capable  in  time 


Mt.Lycflbeitua 

^*  ..5.v/.i,. 


ATHENS   AND   THE    LONG   WALLS. 

of  war  of  holding  the  entire  population  of  Attica.  With  her  com- 
munication with  the  sea  thus  secured,  and  with  a  powerful  navy  at 
her  command,  Athens  could  bid  defiance  to  her  foes  on  sea  and 
land. 

One  of  the  most  important  conquests  of  the  Athenians  during 
Pericles'  leadership,  in  its  bearing  upon  their  maritime  supremacy, 
was  the  subjugation  of  the  island  of  yEgina,  which  lies  in  front  of 

sixty  feet  high.  They  were  defended  by  numerous  towers,  which,  when  Athens 
became  crowded,  were  used  as  shops  and  private  dwellings.  The  walls  were 
employed  as  highways,  the  top  being  wide  enough  to  allow  two  chariots  to 
pass  conveniently.  The  foundation  of  the  northern  wall  now  forms  in  part 
the  road-bed  of  the  railroad  running  from  Piraeus  to  Athens. 


THE    THIRTY   YEARS'    TRUCE.  237 

the  harbor  of  Piraeus.  This  small  but  powerful  state,  which  had 
for  a  long  time  been  a  formidable  rival  of  Athens  by  sea,  was 
now  compelled  to  surrender  its  war  galleys,  and  to  pay  tribute 
(456  B.C.). 

Events   leading   up   to   the   Thirty   Years'  Truce.  —  At   the 

same  time  that  Pericles  was  making  Athens'  supremacy  by  sea 
more  secure,  he  was  endeavoring  to  build  up  for  her  a  land  empire 
in  Central  Greece.  As  her  influence  in  this  quarter  increased, 
Sparta  became  more  and  more  jealous,  and  strove  to  counteract  it 
by  enhancing  the  power  of  Thebes,  and  by  lending  support  to  the 
aristocratic  party  in  the  various  cities  of  Boeotia. 

The  contest  between  the  two  rivals  was  long  and  bitter.  At  first 
the  Athenians  were  worsted,  but  at  length  the  tide  turned  in  their 
favor.  All  the  cities  of  Boeotia,  Phocis,  and  Locris  fell  under  the 
power  of  Athens,  and  it  seemed  as  though  Pericles'  dream  of  a 
land  empire  as  well  as  of  a  naval  dominion  was  about  to  be  real- 
ized. 

But  fortune  once  more  inclined  to  the  side  of  the  aristocratical 
party.  The  Athenian  army  experienced  an  overwhelming  defeat 
(at  Coronea,  447  B.C.),  and  Pericles  was  fain  to  seek  peace  with 
Sparta.  The  negotiations  ended  in  the  well-known  Peace  of  Peri- 
cles, or  the  Thirty  Years'  Truce  (445  B.C.).  By  its  terms  each  of 
the  rival  cities  was  left  at  the  head  of  the  confederation  it  had 
formed,  but  neither  was  to  interfere  with  the  subjects  or  allies 
of  the  other,  while  those  cities  of  Hellas  which  were  not  yet  mem- 
bers of  either  league  were  to  be  left  free  to  join  either  according 
to  choice. 

The  real  meaning  of  the  Truce  was  that  Athens  gave  up  her 
ambition  to  establish  a  land  empire,  and  was  henceforth  to  be  con- 
tent with  supremacy  on  the  seas.  It  meant  further  that  Greece 
was  to  remain  a  house  divided  against  itself;  that  democratic 
Athens  must  share  with  aristocratic  Sparta  the  hegemony,  or  lead- 
ership, of  the  Hellenic  cities. 

Pericles  adorns  Athens  with  Public  Buildings.  —  Notwith- 
standing Pericles'  failure  to  build  up  for  Athens  a  land  dominion, 


238  PERIOD    OF  ATHENIAN  SUPREMACY. 

Still  he  had  contributed  largely  to  give  her  a  place  of  proud  pre- 
eminence in  maritime  Hellas.  Athens  having  achieved  such  a 
position  as  she  now  held,  it  was  the  idea  of  Pericles  that  the  Athe- 
nians should  so  adorn  their  city  that  it  should  be  a  fitting  symbol 
of  the  power  and  glory  of  their  empire. 

Nor  was  it  difficult  for  him  to  persuade  his  art-loving  country- 
men to  embellish  their  city  with  those  masterpieces  of  genius  that 
in  their  ruins  still  excite  the  admiration  of  the  world. 

Upon  the  commanding  site  of  the  Acropolis  was  erected  the 
unrivalled  Parthenon.^  Here  also,  as  a  sort  of  gateway  to  the 
sacred  enclosure  of  the  citadel,  were  erected  the  Propylaea,  which 
have  served  as  a  model  for  all  similar  structures  since  the  age 
of  Pericles.  Various  other  edifices,  rich  with  sculptures,  were 
erected  in  different  parts  of  Athens,  until  the  whole  city  took  on 
a  surprisingly  brilliant  and  magnificent  appearance.  The  whole 
world  looked  up  to  the  Attic  city  with  the  same  surprised  wonder 
with  which  a  century  before  it  had  regarded  the  city  of  Babylon 
as  adorned  by  the  power  and  wealth  of  the  great  Nebuchadnezzar. 

The  Athenians  secured  the  vast  sums  of  money  needed  for  the 
prosecution  of  their  great  architectural  works,  out  of  the  treasury 
of  the  Delian  confederacy.  (It  will  be  recalled  that  the  Athenians 
had  transferred  the  common  treasury  from  Delos  to  their  own  city.) 
The  allies  naturally  declaimed  bitterly  against  this  proceeding, 
complaining  that  Athens,  with  their  money,  was  *'  gilding  itself  as 
a  proud  and  vain  woman  decks  herself  out  with  jewels."  But 
Pericles'  answer  to  them  was,  that  the  money  was  contributed  to 
the  end  that  the  cities  of  the  league  should  be  protected  from  the 
Persians,  and  that  so  long  as  the  Athenians  kept  the  enemy  at  a 
distance  they  had  a  right  to  use  the  money  as  they  pleased. 

The  Citizens  are  taken  into  the  Pay  of  the  State.  —  It  was  a 
fixed  idea  of  Pericles  that  in  a  democracy  there  should  be  not  only 
an  equal  distribution  of  political  rights  among  all  classes,  but  also 
an  equalization  of  the  means  and  opportunities  of  exercising  these 

1  See  p.  289. 


THE  ATHENIAN  EMPIRE,  239 

rights,  as  well  as  an  equal  participation  by  all  in  social  and  intel- 
lectual enjoyments.  By  such  an  equalization  of  the  privileges  and 
pleasures  of  political  and  social  life,  he  would  destroy  the  undue 
influence  of  the  rich  over  the  poor,  and  banish  class  envy  and 
discord. 

In  promoting  his  views  Pericles  carried  to  great  length  the  sys- 
tem of  payment  for  the  most  common  public  services.  Thus,  he 
introduced  the  custom  of  military  pay ;  hitherto  the  Athenian  sol- 
dier had  served  his  country  in  the  field  as  a  matter  of  honor  and 
duty.  He  also  secured  the  payment  of  the  citizen  for  serving  as  a 
juryman,  as  well  as  for  his  attendance  upon  the  meetings  of  the 
popular  assembly.  Through  his  influence,  also,  salaries  were 
attached  to  the  various  civil  offices,  the  most  of  which  had  hitherto 
been  unpaid  positions. 

These  various  measures  enabled  the  poorer  citizens  to  enjoy, 
without  an  inconvenient  sacrifice,  their  franchise  in  the  popular 
assembly,  and  to  offer  themselves  for  the  different  magistracies, 
which  up  to  this  time  had  been  practically  open  only  to  men  of 
means  and  leisure. 

It  was  the  same  motives  that  prompted  the  above  innovation, 
which  led  the  party  of  Pericles  to  introduce  or  to  extend  the  prac- 
tice of  supplying  all  the  citizens  with  free  tickets  to  the  theatre 
and  other  places  of  amusement,  and  of  banqueting  the  people  on 
festival  days  at  the  public  expense.  Respecting  the  effect  of  these 
measures  upon  the  Athenian  democracy,  we  shall  say  a  word  in 
the  following  paragraph. 

Strength  and  Weakness  of  the  Athenian  Empire. — Under 
Pericles  Athens  had  become  the  most  powerful  naval  state  in 
the  world.  In  one  of  his  last  speeches,  made  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  Peloponnesian  War,  in  which  he  recounts  the  resources  of  the 
Athenian  empire,  he  says  to  his  fellow-citizens  :  "  There  is  not 
now  a  king,  there  is  not  any  nation  in  the  universal  world,  able  to 
withstand  that  navy  which  at  this  juncture  you  can  launch  out  to 
sea." 

And  this  was  no  empty  boast.     The  earlier  empires  of  the  East 


240  PERIOD    OF  ATHENIAN  SUPREMACY. 

that  had  once  held  dominion  over  wide  countries  had  now  sunk 
into  decrepitude,  and  the  later  Medo-Persian  power  that  had 
arisen  upon  their  ruins,  and  which  at  the  opening  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C.  was  threatening  to  extend  its  arms  over  the  world, 
had  been  checked  in  its  insolent  advance  by  Hellenic  valor  and 
discipline,  so  that  at  this  time  there  was  no  power  in  the  East  that 
the  Athenians  need  fear.  In  the  West,  Rome  had  not  yet  risen 
into  prominence,  and  Carthage  was  barely  able  to  contend  upon 
equal  terms  with  the  Greek  cities  of  Sicily.  Indisputably  the 
Hellenes  were  at  this  moment  the  predominant  race  in  the  world ; 
and  Athens,  notwithstanding  the  limitations  placed  upon  her  am- 
bition by  the  terms  of  the  Thirty  Years'  Truce,  was  the  real  head 
of  Hellas.  She  had  extended  her  dominion  over  a  large  part  of 
the  Greek  cities,  and  it  was  but  natural  that  the  more  sanguine  of 
her  statesmen  should  believe  that  she  was  destined  to  give  laws  to 
the  world. 

But  the  most  significant  feature  of  this  new  imperial  power  was 
the  combination  of  these  vast  material  resources  with  the  most 
imposing  display  of  intellectual  resources  that  the  world  had  ever 
witnessed.  Never  before  had  there  been  such  a  union  of  the 
material  and  intellectual  elements  of  civilization  at  the  seat  of 
empire.  Literature  and  art  had  been  carried  to  the  utmost  perfec- 
tion possible  to  human  genius.  Art  was  represented  by  the  inimi- 
table creations  of  Phidias  and  Polygnotus.  The  Drama  was  illus- 
trated by  the  incomparable  tragedies  of  yEschylus,  Sophocles,  and 
Euripides,  and  by  the  comedies  of  Aristophanes,  while  the  writing 
of  the  world's  annals  had  become  an  art  in  the  graceful  narrations 
of  Herodotus. 

But  there  were  elements  of  weakness  in  the  splendid  imperial 
structure.  The  Athenian  empire  was  destined  to  be  short-lived  be- 
cause the  principles  upon  which  it  rested  were  in  opposition  to  the 
deepest  instinct  of  the  Greek  race  —  the  sentiment  of  local  patriot- 
ism, which  invested  each  individual  city  with  political  sovereignty. 
Athens  had  disregarded  this  feeling.  Pericles  himself  acknowl- 
edged that  in  the  hands  of  the  Athenians,  sovereignty  had  run  out 


THE  ATHENIAN  EMPIRE.  241 

into  a  sort  of  tyranny.  The  so-called  confederates  were  the  slaves 
of  Athens.  To  her  they  paid  tribute.  To  her  courts  they  were 
dragged  for  trial.^  Naturally  the  subject  cities  of  her  empire  re- 
garded Athens  as  the  destroyer  of  Hellenic  liberties,  and  watched 
impatiently  for  the  first  favorable  moment  to  revolt,  and  throw  off 
the  hateful  yoke  that  she  had  imposed  upon  them.  Hence  the 
Athenian  empire  rested  upon  a  foundation  of  sand. 

Had  Athens,  instead  of  enslaving  her  confederates  of  the 
Delian  league,  only  been  able  to  find  out  some  way  of  retaining 
them  as  allies  in  an  equal  union,  —  a  great  and  perhaps  impossible 
task  in  that  age  of  the  world,  —  as  head  of  the  federated  Greek  race, 
she  might  have  secured  for  Hellas  the  sovereignty  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  the  history  of  Rome  might  have  ended  with  the  first 
century  of  the  Republic. 

Furthermore,  there  were  elements  of  weakness  within  the  Athe- 
nian democracy  itself.  Greatly  as  Pericles  had  exalted  Athens,  and 
vastly  as  he  had  extended  her  reputation,  still  by  some  of  his 
measures  he  had  sown  the  seeds  of  future  evils.  In  his  system  of 
payment  for  the  most  common  public  services,  and  of  wholesale 
public  largesses  and  gratuities,  he  had  introduced  or  encouraged 
practices  that  had  the  same  demoralizing  effects  upon  the  Athe- 
nians that  the  free  distribution  of  corn  at  Rome  at  a  later  time  had 
upon  the  Roman  populace.  These  pernicious  customs  cast  dis- 
credit upon  labor,  destroyed  frugality,  and  fostered  idleness,  thus 
sapping  the  virtues  and  strength  of  the  Athenian  democracy. 

Illustrations  of  these  weaknesses,  as  well  as  of  the  strength  of 
the  Athenian  empire,  will  be  afforded  by  the  great  struggle  between 
Athens  and  Sparta  known  as  the  Peloponnesian  War,  the  causes 
and  chief  incidents  of  v/hich  we  shall  next  rehearse. 

1  The  subject  cities  were  allowed  to  maintain  only  their  lower  courts  of  jus- 
tice; all  cases  of  importance  were  carried  to  Athens,  and  there  decided  by  the 
Attic  tribunals. 


242  THE  PELOPONNESIAN    WAR. 


CHAPTER   VIL 

THE   PELOPONNESIAN    WAR:    THE   SPARTAN    AND   THE 
THEBAN   SUPREMACY. 

I.   The  PELOPONNESIAN  War   (431-404  b.c). 

Causes  of  the  War.  —  During  the  closing  years  of  the  Hfe  of 
Pericles  the  growing  jealousy  between  Athens  and  Sparta  broke 
out  in  the  long  struggle  known  as  the  Peloponnesian  War,  to  which 
we  alluded  in  the  preceding  chapter.  Pericles  had  foreseen  the 
coming  storm  :  "  I  descry  war,"  said  he,  "  lowering  from  the  Pel- 
oponnesus." He  saw  clearly  that  the  jealousies  and  opposing 
principles  of  the  two  rival  states  would,  sooner  or  later,  in  spite  of 
truces  and  treaties,  bring  them  to  a  final  trial  of  strength.  His 
whole  later  policy  looked  toward  the  preparation  of  Athens  for 
the  "  irrepressible  conflict." 

The  immediate  causes  of  the  war  were,  first,  the  interference  of 
Athens,  on  the  side  of  the  Corcyraeans,  in  a  quarrel  between  them 
and  their  mother-city  Corinth ;  and  secondly,  the  blockade  by  the 
Athenians  of  Potidaea,  on  the  Macedonian  coast.  This  was  a  Corin- 
thian colony,  but  it  was  a  member  of  the  Delian  league,  and  was 
now  being  chastised  by  x\thens  for  attempted  secession.  Corinth, 
as  the  ever-jealous  naval  rival  of  Athens,  had  endeavored  to  lend 
aid  to  her  daughter,  but  had  been  worsted  in  an  engagement  with 
the  Athenians. 

With  affairs  in  this  shape,  Corinth,  seconded  by  Megara  and 
^gina,  both  of  which  had  causes  of  complaint  against  Athens, 
appealed  to  Sparta,  as  the  head  of  the  Dorian  alliance,  for  aid  and 
justice.     The    Spartans,  after  listening  to   the    deputies    of  both 


GRERCE 

in  the 

Fifth  Century  B.C. 

Zacedcemonian  Possessions  &  Allies    I     ^ 
^Hienian  I'ossessions  &  Allies  I       "I 


^ 


BVMPLEGADPd  l».t 


RESOURCES    OF  SPARTA    AND    OF  ATHENS.  243 

sides,  decided  that  the  Athenians  had  been  guilty  of  injustice,  and 
declared  for  war.  The  resolution  of  the  Spartans  was  endorsed  by 
the  Peloponnesian  confederation,  and  apparently  approved  by  the 
Delphian  oracle,  which,  in  response  to  an  inquiry  of  the  Spartans 
as  to  what  would  be  the  issue  of  the  proposed  undertaking,  assured 
them  that  ''  they  would  gain  the  victory,  if  they  fought  with  all 
their  might." 

Comparison  of  the  Resources  of  Sparta  and  of  Athens.  — The 
resources  of  Hellas  were,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  very  evenly 
divided  between  the  two  parties.  With  Sparta  were  all  the  states 
of  the  Peloponnesus,  save  Argos  and  Achaia,  while  beyond  the 
Isthmus  the  Megareans,  the  Boeotian  League  headed  by  Thebes, 
the  Locrians,  and  the  Phocians  were  her  chief  allies.  Together, 
these  states  could  raise  a  land  force  of  sixty  thousand  men,  besides 
a  considerable  naval  armament,  Corinth  being  especially  strong  in 
ships. 

Athens  commanded  all  the  resources  of  the  subject  cities  — 
about  three  hundred  in  number,  with  twice  as  many  smaller  towns 
—  of  her  great  maritime  empire.  Her  independent  allies  were 
Chios,  Lesbos,  Corcyra,  and  other  states.  Of  course  the  chief 
strength  of  Athens  lay  in  her  splendid  navy. 

The  Beginning  :  Attack  upon  Platsea  by  the  Thebans.  — The 
first  act  in  the  long  and  terrible  drama  was  enacted  at  night, 
within  the  walls  of  Plataea.  This  city,  though  in  Boeotia,  was  under 
the  protection  of  Athens,  and  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  the 
Boeotian  League,  of  which  Thebes  was  the  leading  city. 

Anxious  to  get  possession  of  this  place  before  the  actual  out- 
break of  the  war  which  they  saw  to  be  inevitable,  the  Thebans 
planned  its  surprise  and  capture.  Three  hundred  Thebans  gained 
access  to  the  unguarded  city  in  the  dead  of  night,  and  marching 
to  the  public  square,  summoned  the  Plataeans  to  exchange  the 
Athenian  for  a  Boeotian  alliance. 

The  Plataeans  were  upon  the  point  of  acceding  to  all  the  de- 
mands made  upon  them,  when,  discovering  the  small  number  of 
the  enemy,  they  attacked  and  overpowered  them  in  the  darkness, 


244  THE  PELOPONNESIAN   WAR. 

and  took  a  hundred  and  eighty  of  them  prisoners.  These  captives 
they  afterwards  murdered,  in  violation,  as  the  Thebans  ahvays 
maintained,  of  a  sacred  promise  that  their  Hves  should  be  spared. 
This  wretched  affair  at  Platsea  precipitated  the  war  (431  B.C.). 

Invasion  of  Attica  :  Pestilence  at  Athens.  — A  Spartan  army 
was  soon  overrunning  Attica,  while  an  Athenian  fleet  was  ravaging 
the  coasts  of  the  Peloponnesus.^  Pericles  persuaded  the  country 
people  of  Attica  to  abandon  their  villas  and  hamlets  and  gather 
within  the  defences  of  the  city.  He  did  not  deem  it  prudent  to  risk 
a  battle  in  the  open  fields.  From  the  walls  of  Athens  the  people 
could  see  the  flames  of  their  burning  villages  and  farmhouses,  as 
the  enemy  ravaged  the  plains  of  Attica  up  to  the  very  gates  of  the 
city.  It  required  all  the  persuasion  of  Pericles  to  restrain  them 
from  issuing  in  a  body  from  behind  the  ramparts  and  rushing  to 
the  defence  of  their  homes. 

The  second  year  the  Lacedaemonians  again  ravaged  the  fields 
about  Athens,  and  drove  the  Athenians  almost  to  frenzy  with  the 
sight  of  the  flame  and  smoke  of  such  property  as  had  escaped 
the  destruction  of  the  previous  year.  To  increase  their  misery,  a 
pestilence  broke  out  within  the  crowded  city,  and  added  its  horrors 
to  the  already  unbearable  calamities  of  war.  No  pen  could  picture 
the  despair  and  gloom  that  settled  over  the  city.  Athens  lost, 
probably,  one-fourth  of  her  fighting  men.  Pericles,  who  had  been 
the  very  soul  and  life  of  Athens  through  these  dark  days,  fell  a 
victim  to  the  plague  (429  b.c).  In  dying,  he  said  he  considered 
his  greatest  praise  to  be  that  "  he  had  never  caused  an  Athenian 
to  put  on  mourning." 

1  The  war  is  usually  divided  into  three  periods,  as  follows:  I.  From  the 
beginning  to  the  Peace  of  Nicias  (431-421  B.C.),  often  designated  as  the  Ten 
Years'  War,  or  the  iVttic  War,  from  the  frequent  invasions  of  Attica  by  the 
Peloponnesians;  2.  From  the  Peace  of  Nicias  to  the  defeat  of  the  Sicilian 
expedition  (421-413  B.C.);  3.  From  the  Sicilian  disaster  to  the  dismantling 
of  the  defences  of  Athens  (413-404  B.C.),  called  the  Decelean  War,  from 
Decelea,  a  stronghold  in  Attica  seized  and  held  by  the  Spartans  during  this 
part  of  the  struggle.  This  last  period  is  also  sometimes  called  the  Ionian  War, 
because  so  much  of  the  fighting  took  place  in  Ionia. 


CHARACTER    OF   THE    WAR,  245 

After  the  death  of  Pericles  the  leadership  of  affairs  at  Athens 
fell  into  the  hands  of  unprincipled  demagogues,  of  whom  Cleon 
was  chief.  The  mob  element  got  control  of  the  popular  assembly, 
so  that  hereafter  we  shall  find  many  of  its  actions  characterized 
neither  by  virtue  nor  wisdom. 

Desperate  and  Cruel  Character  of  the  War.  —  On  both  sides 
the  war  was  waged  with  the  utmost  vindictiveness  and  cruelty.  As 
a  rule,  all  the  men  captured  by  either  side  were  killed. 

In  the  year  428  B.C.  the  city  of  Mytilene,  on  the  island  of  Lesbos, 
revolted  from  the  Athenians.  With  the  rebellion  suppressed,  the 
fate  of  the  Mytileneans  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Athenian  assembly. 
Cleon  proposed  that  all  the  men  of  the  place,  six  thousand  in 
number,  should  be  slain,  and  the  women  and  children  sold  as 
slaves.  This  infamous  decree  was  passed,  and  a  galley  despatched 
bearing  the  sentence  for  execution  to  the  Athenian  general  at 
Mytilene. 

By  the  next  morning,  however,  the  Athenians  had  repented  of 
their  hasty  and  cruel  resolution.  A  second  meeting  of  the  assem- 
bly was  hurriedly  called  ;  the  barbarous  vote  was  repealed  ;  and  a 
swift  trireme,  bearing  the  reprieve,  set  out  in  anxious  haste  to 
overtake  the  former  galley,  which  had  twenty-four  hours  the  start. 
The  oarsmen  of  the  trireme,  with  every  nerve  strung  to  the  highest 
tension  by  the  nature  of  their  errand  as  well  as  by  the  promise  of 
large  rewards  dependent  upon  the  success  of  their  mission,  urged 
the  vessel  across  the  yEgean  with  almost  preternatural  energy. 
The  trireme  reached  the  island  just  in  time  to  prevent  the  execu- 
tion of  the  cruel  edict. 

The  second  resolution  of  the  Athenians,  though  more  discrimi- 
nating than  the  first  decree,  was  quite  severe  enough.  Over  one 
thousand  of  the  nobles  of  Mytilene  were  killed,  the  city  was  de- 
stroyed, and  the  larger  part  of  the  lands  of  the  island  given  to 
citizens  of  Athens. 

Still  more  unrelenting  and  cruel  were  the  Spartans.  In  the  sum- 
mer of  the  same  year  that  the  Athenians  wreaked  such  vengeance 
upon  the  Mytileneans,  the  Spartans  and  their  allies  captured  the 


246  THE   PELOPONNESIAN   WAR. 

city  of  Plataea,  put  to  death  all  the  men,  sold  the  women  as  slaves, 
and  turned  the  site  of  the  city  into  pasture-land.^ 

Events  leadings  up  to  the  Peace  of  Nicias  (421  b.c).  —  Soon 
after  the  affair  at  Mytilene  and  the  destruction  of  Platsea,  events 
occurred  which  show  how  completely  the  Athenian  assembly  had 
fallen  under  the  influence  of  unprincipled  politicians. 

An  enterprising  general  of  the  Athenians,  named  Demosthe- 
nes, seized  and  fortified  a  point  of  land  (Pylos)  on  the  coast  of 
Messenia.  The  Spartans  made  every  effort  to  dislodge  the  enemy. 
In  the  course  of  the  siege,  four  hundred  Spartans  under  Brasidas, 
having  landed  upon  a  little  island  (Sphacteria) ,  were  so  unfortunate 
as  to  be  cut  off  from  the  mainland  by  the  sudden  arrival  of  an 
Athenian  fleet.  Among  the  men  thus  imprisoned  were  some 
members  of  the  first  Spartan  families. 

To  effect  the  release  of  the  men  upon  the  island,  the  Spartans 
sent  commissioners  to  Athens  to  beg  for  peace.  The  terms  offered 
were  such  as  should  at  once  have  been  embraced  by  the  Athe- 
nians. But  Cleon,  desiring  the  war  to  go  on,  persuaded  the 
assembly  to  reject  the  offers  of  the  embassadors,  and  to  propose 
terms  which  he  knew  could  not  and  would  not  be  accepted  by 
them.  The  result  was  the  return  of  the  deputies  to  Sparta,  and 
the  breaking  off  of  the  negotiations. 

The  Athenians  soon  had  occasion  to  repent  of  their  action. 
It  was  found  a  difficult  matter  to  capture  the  Spartans  who  were 
upon  the  island,  and  Demosthenes  was  forced  to  send  to  Athens 
for  reinforcements.  Cleon  was  sent  with  additional  ships  and 
men.  Rather  through  good  fortune  than  by  good  generalship,  he 
succeeded  in  capturing  the  Spartans,  to  the  number  of  about  three 
hundred,  and  bringing  them  prisoners  to  Athens. 

But  affairs  now  took  a  different  turn.  The  Athenians,  hav- 
ing imprudently  invaded  Boeotia,  were  worsted  at  the  battle  of 
Delium  (424  b.c.)  .  Along  with  this  disaster  came  other  troubles 
further  to   the   north.     The  able   and  eloquent  Spartan  general, 

1  Read  Thucydides'  graphic  account  of  the  siege  and  reduction  of  the  city, 
Books  II.  and  III. 


ALCIBIADES  AND    THE   SICILIAN  EXPEDITION       247 


Brasidas,  stirred  up  some  of  the  Thracian  allies  of  Athens  to 
revolt.  In  the  fighting  which  followed  in  this  quarter,  Cleon  and 
Brasidas  were  both  killed  in  battle.  Again  negotiations  for  peace 
were  opened,  which,  after  many  embassies  to  and  fro,  resulted  in 
what  is  known  as  the  Peace  of  Nicias,  from  the  prominent  Athenian 
general  who  is  supposed  to  have  had  most  to  do  in  bringing  it 
about.  The  treaty  arranged  for  a  truce  of  fifty  years.  Each  party 
was  to  give  up  to  the  other  all  prisoners  and  captured  places. 

Alcibiades  and  the  Sicilian  Expedition  (415-413  b.c).  —  The 
Peace  of  Nicias,  as  Thucydides  tells  us,  was  only  a  nominal  one. 
Some  of  the  alhes  of  the  two  principal  parties  to  the  truce  were  dis- 
satisfied with  it,  and  consequently  its  terms  were  not  carried  out  in 
good  faith  or  temper  on  either  side.  So  the  war  went  on.  For  about 
seven  years,  however,  Athens  and  Sparta  refrained  from  invading 
each  other's  territory  ;  but  even  during  this  period  each  was  aiding 
its  allies  in  making  war  upon  the  dependents  or  confederates  of 
the  other.  Finally,  hostilities  flamed 
out  in  open  and  avowed  war,  and 
all  Hellas  was  again  lit  up  with  the 
fires  of  the  fratricidal  strife. 

The  most  prominent  person  on 
the  Athenian  side  during  this  latter 
period  of  the  struggle  was  Alcibiades, 
a  versatile  and  brilliant  man,  but  a 
reckless  and  unsafe  counsellor.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Socrates,  but  he  failed 
to  follow  the  counsels  of  his  teacher. 
His  astonishing  orgies  only  seemed 
to  attach  the  people  more  closely 
to  him,  for  he  possessed  all  those 
personal   traits    which    make    men 

popular  idols.  His  influence  over  the  democracy  was  unlimited. 
By  the  unscrupulous  employment  of  the  various  arts  known  to  the 
successful  demagogue,  he  was  able  to  carry  through  the  popular 
assembly  almost  any  measure  that   it   pleased   him   to   advocate. 


ALCIBIADES 


248  THE   PELOPONNESIAN    WAR. 

The  more  prudent  of  the  Athenians  were  filled  with  apprehension 
for  the  future  of  the  state  under  such  guidance.  The  noted  mis- 
anthrope Timon  gave  expression  to  this  feeling  when,  after  Alcibi- 
ades  had  secured  the  assent  of  the  popular  assembly  to  one  of  his 
impoHtic  measures,  he  said  to  him  :  "  Go  on,  my  brave  boy,  and 
prosper;  for  your  prosperity  will  bring  on  the  ruin  of  all  this 
crowd."     And  it  did,  as  we  shall  see. 

The  most  prosperous  enterprise  of  Alcibiades,  in  the  Timonian 
sense,  was  the  inciting  the  Athenians  to  undertake  an  expedition 
against  the  Dorian  city  of  Syracuse,  in  Sicily.  The  scheme  that 
Alcibiades  was  revolving  in  his  mind  was  a  most  magnificent  one. 
He  proposed  that  the  Athenians,  after  effecting  the  conquest  of 
Sicily,  should  make  that  island  the  base  of  operations  against  both 
Africa  and  Italy.  With  the  Italians  and  Carthaginians  subdued, 
the  armaments  of  the  entire  Hellenic  world  outside  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, were  to  be  turned  against  the  Spartans,  who  with  one  blow 
should  be  forever  crushed,  and  Athens  be  left  the  arbiter  of  the 
destinies  of  Hellas. 

Alcibiades  succeeded  in  persuading  the  Athenians  to  undertake 
at  least  the  first  part  of  the  colossal  enterprise.  An  immense  fleet 
was  carefully  equipped  and  manned.^  Anxiously  did  those  remain- 
ing behind  watch  the  squadron  as  it  bore  away  from  the  port  of 
Athens.  Could  the  watchers  have  foreseen  the  fate  of  the  splen- 
did armament,  their  anxiety  would  have  passed  into  despair.  "  Ath- 
ens itself  was  sailing  out  of  the  Piraeus,  never  again  to  return." 

Scarcely  had  the  expedition  arrived  at  Sicily,  before  Alcibiades, 
who  was  one  of  the  leading  generals  in  command  of  the  arma- 
ment, was  summoned  back  to  Athens  to  answer  a  charge  of  impi- 
ety.^    Fearing   to    trust   himself  in  the  hands  of  his  enemies  at 

1  It  consisted  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  costly  triremes,  bearing  thirty- 
six  thousand  soldiers  and  sailors.  The  commanders  were  Alcibiades,  Nicias, 
and  Lamachus.  Later,  Demosthenes  was  sent  out  with  a  reinforcement  con- 
sisting of  seventy-three  triremes  and  five  thousand  soldiers. 

2  Just  upon  the  eve  of  the  departure  of  the  expedition,  the  numerous  stat- 
ues of  Hermes  scattered  throughout  the  city  wer6  grossly   mutilated.     The 


THE   FALL    OF  ATHENS.  249 

Athens,  he  fled  to  Sparta,  and  there,  by  traitorous  counsel,  did  all 
in  his  power  to  ruin  the  very  expedition  he  had  planned.  He 
advised  the  Spartans  to  send  at  once  their  best  general  to  the  Syr- 
acusans.  They  sent  Gylippus,  an  able  commander,  whose  general- 
ship contributed  largely  to  the  total  and  irretrievable  defeat  that 
the  Athenians  finally  suffered.^  Their  fleet  and  army  were  both 
virtually  annihilated.  The  Athenian  generals  Nicias  and  Demos- 
thenes, who  with  about  seven  thousand  soldiers  were  made  prison- 
ers, were  condemned  to  death.  Hearing  of  their  sentence,  they 
committed  suicide.  The  other  prisoners  were  crowded  into  the 
open  stone  quarries,  where  hundreds  speedily  died  of  exposure  and 
starvation.  Most  of  the  wretched  survivors  were  finally  sold  as 
slaves.  The  disaster  was  appalling  and  complete.  The  resources 
of  i\thens  were  wrecked. 

The  Decelean  War:  The  Fall  of  Athens.  —While  the  Athe- 
nians were  before  Syracuse,  the  Spartans,  acting  upon  the  advice 
of  Alcibiades,  had  taken  possession  of  and  fortified  a  strong  and 
commanding  position  known  as  Decelea,  in  Attica,  only  twelve 
miles  from  Athens.  This  was  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  Athens. 
Secure  in  this  stronghold,  the  Spartans  could  annoy  and  keep  in 
terror  almost  all  the  Attic  plain.  Decelea  further  proved  a  sort 
of  city  of  refuge  for  the  Athenian  slaves,  thousands  of  whom  here 
found  an  asylum.  The  occupation  by  the  Spartans  of  this  strategic 
point  had  such  a  determining  influence  upon  the  remainder  of 
the  Peloponnesian  War,  that  this  latter  portion  of  it  is  known  as 
the  Decelean  War  (413-404  B.C.). 

Taking  advantage   of  the   terrible   misfortunes  of  Athens,   her 

sacrilegious  act  naturally  produced  a  terrible  excitement.  Alcibiades  was 
accused  of  having  a  hand  in  the  affair,  and  furthermore  of  having  mimicked 
the  sacred  rites  of  the  Eleusinian  mysteries.  Taking  advantage  of  the  absence 
of  himself  and  friends,  his  enemies  had  secured  the  passage  of  a  decree 
demanding  his  recall  and  trial. 

1  The  ruin  of  the  Athenians  was  rendered  absolutely  complete  by  the  in- 
competency and  superstition  of  Nicias,  who,  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  occurring, 
persisted  in  following  the  advice  of  his  soothsayers,  and  delayed  for  days  a 
retreat  upon  which  depended  the  salvation  of  his  army. 


250  THE  PELOPONNESIAN   WAR. 

subject-allies  now  revolted  and  fell  away  from  her  on  every  side. 
The  Persians,  ever  ready  to  aid  the  Greeks  in  destroying  one 
another,  lent  a  willing  ear  to  the  solicitations  of  the  traitor  Alci- 
biades,  and  gave  help  to  the  Spartans. 

The  Athenians  put  forth  almost  superhuman  efforts  to  retrieve 
their  fortunes.  Had  they  been  united  among  themselves,  perhaps 
their  efforts  would  not  have  been  in  vain.  But  the  oligarchical 
party,  for  the  sake  of  ruining  the  democracy  were  willing  to  ruin 
the  empire.  While  the  army  was  absent  from  Athens,  they  over- 
turned the  government,  and  established  a  sort  of  aristocratical  rule 
(411  B.C.),  under  which  affairs  were  in  the  hands  of  a  council  of 
Four  Hundred. 

The  Athenian  troops,  however,  who  were  at  Samos,  would  not 
recognize  the  new  government.  They  voted  themselves  to  be  the 
true  Athens,  and  forgetting  and  forgiving  the  past,  recalled  Alcibi- 
ades,  and  gave  him  command  of  the  army,  thereby  well  illustrating 
what  the  poet  Aristophanes  said  respecting  the  disposition  of  the 
Athenians  toward  the  spoiled  favorite,  —  "They  love,  they  hate, 
but  cannot  live  without  him." 

Alcibiades  detached  the  Persians  from  the  side  of  the  Spartans, 
and  gained  some  splendid  victories  for  Athens.  But  he  could  not 
undo  the  evil  he  had  done.  He  had  ruined  Athens  beyond 
redemption  by  any  human  power.  Constantly  the  struggle  grew 
more  and  more  hopeless.  Alcibiades  was  defeated,  and  fearing 
to  face  the  Athenians,  who  had  deposed  him  from  his  command, 
sought  safety  in  flight. 

Finally,  at  ^^gospotami,  on  the  Hellespont,  the  Athenian  fleet 
was  surprised  and  captured  by  the  Spartans  under  Lysander  (405 
B.C.).  The  prisoners,  three  thousand  in  number,  were  massacred, 
and  the  usual  rites  of  burial  denied  their  bodies. 

The  battle  of  ^gospotami  sealed  the  fate  of  Athens.  "That 
night,"  writes  the  historian  Xenophon,  referring  to  the  night  upon 
which  the  news  of  the  woful  disaster  reached  Athens,  "That  night 
no  man  slept." 

The  towns  on  the  Thracian  and  Macedonian  coasts,  and  the 


RESULTS   OF   THE    WAR.  251 

islands  of  the  ^gean  belonging  to  the  Athenian  Empire,  now  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Peloponnesians.  Athens  was  besieged  by 
sea  and  land,  and  soon  forced  to  surrender. 

Some  of  the  allies  insisted  upon  the  total  destruction  of  the  city, 
and  the  conversion  of  its  site  into  pasture -land.  The  Spartans, 
however,  with  apparent  magnanimity,  declared  that  they  would 
never  consent  thus  "  to  put  out  one  of  the  eyes  of  Greece," 
strengthening  the  argument  of  the  metaphor  by  urging  in  behalf 
of  Athens  the  great  service  she  had  rendered  Hellas  in  her  struggle 
with  the  Barbarians. 

The  real  motive,  doubtless,  of  the  Spartans  in  sparing  the  city 
was  their  fear  lest,  with  Athens  blotted  out,  Thebes  or  Corinth 
should  become  too  powerful.  So  the  city  itself  was  spared,  but 
the  fortifications  of  Piraeus  and  the  Long  Walls  were  levelled  to  the 
ground,  the  work  of  demolition  being  begun  to  the  accompani- 
ment of  festive  music  (404  B.C.) . 

Sparta's  power  was  now  supreme.  She  had  neither  peer  nor 
rival  among  all  the  Grecian  states.  Throughout  the  war  she  had 
maintained  that  her  only  purpose  in  warring  against  Athens  was 
to  regain  liberty  for  the  Grecian  cities.  We  shall  very  soon  see 
what  sort  of  liberty  it  was  that  they  enjoyed  under  her  guardian- 
ship. 

Results  of  the  War.  —  "  Never,"  says  Thucydides,  commenting 
upon  the  lamentable  results  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  the  worst 
consequences  of  which,  however,  he  did  not  live  to  witness,  "  Never 
had  so  many  cities  been  made  desolate  by  victories ;  .  .  .  never 
were  there  so  many  instances  of  banishment ;  never  so  many 
scenes  of  slaughter  either  in  battle  or  sedition." 

Athens  was  but  the  wreck  of  her  former  self.  She  had  lost  hun- 
dreds of  ships  and  sixty  thousand  men,  including  the  killed  among 
her  aUies.  Things  were  just  the  reverse  now  of  what  they  were 
at  the  time  of  the  Persian  invasion.  When,  with  all  iVthens  in 
ruins,  Themistocles  at  Salamis  was  taunted  by  the  Spartans  with 
being  a  man  without  a  city,  he  replied  grandly,  "  Athens  is  here 
in  her  ships."  But  now  the  real  Athens  was  gone  :  only  the  empty 
shell  remained. 


252  THE  PELOPONNESIAN   WAR. 

And  all  the  rest  of  Hellas  showed  the  marks  of  the  cruel  war. 
Spots  where  once  had  stood  large  towns  were  now  pasture-land. 
But  more  lamentable  than  all  else  besides,  was  the  effect  of  the 
war  upon  the  intellectual  and  moral  life  of  the  Greek  race.  The 
Grecian  world  had  sunk  many  degrees  in  morality ;  while  the  vigor 
and  productiveness  of  the  intellectual  and  artistic  life  of  Hellas, 
the  centre  and  home  of  which  had  been  Athens,  were  impaired 
beyond  recovery.  The  achievements  of  the  Greek  intellect,  espe- 
cially in  the  fields  of  philosophic  thought,  in  the  century  following 
the  war  were,  it  is  true,  wonderful ;  but  these  triumphs  merely 
show,  we  may  believe,  what  the  Hellenic  mind  would  have  done 
for  art  and  general  culture,  had  it  been  permitted,  unchecked,  and 
under  the  favoring  and  inspiring  conditions  of  liberty  and  self- 
government,  to  disclose  all  that  was  latent  in  it. 


n.   The  Spartan  and  the  Theban  Supremacy. 

Spartan  Supremacy.  —  For  just  one  generation  following  the 
Peloponnesian  War  (404-371  B.C.),  Sparta  held  the  leadership  of 
the  Grecian  states.  Aristocratical  governments,  with  institutions 
similar  to  the  Spartan,  were  established  in  the  different  cities  of 
the  old  Athenian  Empire.  At  Athens,  the  democratical  constitu- 
tion of  Solon,  under  which  the  Athenians  had  attained  their  great- 
ness, was  abolished,  and  an  oppressive  oligarchy  established  in 
its  stead.  The  Thirty  Tyrants,  however,  who  administered  this 
government  were,  after  eight  months'  infamous  rule,  driven  from 
the  city,  and  the  old  democratic  constitution,  somewhat  modified, 
was  re-estabhshed  (403  B.C.). 

It  was  during  this  period  that  Socrates,  the  greatest  moralist 
and  teacher  of  antiquity,  was  condemned  to  death,  because  his 
teachings  were  thought  contrary  to  the  teligion  of  the  Athenians. 
To  this  era  also  belongs  the  well-known  expedition  of  the  Ten 
Thousand  Greeks. 


THE  PEACE    OF  ANTALCIDAS.  253 

Expedition  of  the  Ten  Thousand  (401-400  b.c).  —  The  aid 
given  by  the  Persians  to  Sparta  in  the  Peloponnesian  War  was  not 
altogether  unselfish.  Cyrus,  satrap  of  the  Persian  provinces  of 
Asia  Minor,  thinking  that  his  brother  Artaxerxes  held  the  throne 
unjustly,^  was  secretly  planning  to  seize  it  for  himself.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  when  he  saw  the  tide  of 
events  turning  against  Athens,  he  lent  aid  to  the  Spartans ;  pro- 
posing thus  to  place  them  under  obligation  to  himself,  so  that  he 
could  ask  their  aid  in  his  contemplated  enterprise.  Now  the  time 
had  come  for  the  return  of  the  favor.  To  the  army  of  one  hun- 
dred thousand  barbarians  which  Cyrus  had  raised  in  Asia,  the 
Spartans  added  about  eleven  thousand  Greek  soldiers. 

With  this  force  Cyrus  set  out  from  Sardis,  in  the  spring  of 
401  B.C.  He  marched  without  opposition  across  x\sia  Minor  and 
Mesopotamia  to  Babylonia,  into  the  very  heart  of  the  Persian 
Empire.  Here,  at  Cunaxa,  he  was  confronted  by  Artaxerxes  with 
a  force  of  more  than  half  a  million  of  men.  The  barbarian  allies 
of  Cyrus  were  scattered  at  the  first  onset  of  the  enemy ;  but  the 
Greeks  stood  like  a  rampart  of  rock.  Cyrus,  however,  was  slain  ; 
and  the  other  Greek  generals,  having  been  persuaded  to  enter  into 
a  council,  were  treacherously  murdered  by  the  Persians. 

The  Greeks,  in  a  hurried  night  meeting,  chose  new  generals  to 
lead  them  back  to  their  homes.  One  of  these  was  Xenophon,  the 
popular  historian  of  the  expedition.  Now  commenced  one  of  the 
most  memorable  retreats  in  all  history.  After  a  most  harassing 
march  over  the  hot  plains  of  the  Tigris  and  the  icy  passes  of 
Armenia,  the  survivors  reached  the  Black  Sea,  the  abode  of  sister 
Greek  colonies. 

Decline  of  the  Spartan  State:  the  Peace  of  Antalcidas  (387 
B.C.).  — The  part  taken  by  the  Greeks  in  the  enterprise  of  Cyrus 

1  "  It  was  a  matter  of  dispute  whether  the  right  of  succession  belonged  to 
the  eldest  son,  or  to  the  son  born  first  after  his  father's  accession  to  the  throne. 
The  accession  of  Xerxes  had  been  decided  by  the  fact  that  he  was  born  during 
the  reign  of  Darius."  —  Ranke.  According  to  this  precedent,  the  throne  now 
belonged  to  Cyrus. 


254  THE  PELOPONNESIAN    WAR. 

led  the  Persian  monarch  Artaxerxes  to  seek  revenge  by  interfering 
anew  in  the  affairs  of  Greece.  The  Greek  cities  of  Asia  were  the 
first  to  feel  the  resentment  of  the  Great  King.  The  Spartans, 
under  their  king  Agesilaus,  extended  them  timely  and  efficient  aid. 
At  one  time  it  seemed  as  though  the  Persian  authority  in  Asia 
Minor  would  be  completely  destroyed. 

But  meanwhile  Persian  gold  was  effecting  in  Greece  what  the 
Persian  sword  was  unable  to  accomplish  in  Asia.  The  emissaries 
of  Artaxerxes,  by  persuasions  and  bribes,  had  secured  a  coalition 
of  the  Grecian  states  against  Sparta,  and  the  threatening  move- 
ments of  these  forced  Agesilaus  to  return  in  haste  to  defend  his 
own  country.  A  disastrous  struggle  known  as  the  Corinthian  War 
(395-3S7  B.C.)  now  followed,  in  which  the  Spartans  contended 
against  the  Athenians,  the  Thebans,  the  Corinthians,  the  Argives, 
and  the  Persians.  Finally,  after  all  parties  were  weary  of  the  con- 
test, the  war  was  ended  by  the  Peace  of  Antalcidas,  so  called 
from  the  Spartan  commissioner  who  arranged  the  articles  of  the 
treaty. 

By  the  terms  of  this  peace,  famous  because  so  infamous,  all  the 
Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  as  well  as  the  island  of  Cyprus  and 
the  island-city  of  Clazomenae,  were  handed  over  to  the  Persians. 
Three  islands  —  Lemnos,  Imbros,  and  Scyros  —  were  given  to 
Athens.  All  the  other  islands,  and  the  states  of  the  Grecian  main- 
land, were  left  each  in  a  condition  of  isolated  independence.  No 
city  was  to  rule  over  others,  or  to  exact  tribute  from  them.  The 
edict  of  King  Artaxerxes  closed  as  follows  :  "  Whosoever  refuses 
to  accept  this  peace,  him  I  shall  fight,  assisted  by  those  who  are 
of  the  same  mind  [which  meant  the  Spartans],  by  land  as  well  as 
by  sea,  with  ships  and  with  money." 

Sparta  has  been  accused  of  selfishness  in  the  part  she  took  in 
forcing  the  Grecian  states  to  accept  the  terms  of  the  Peace  of 
Antalcidas.  But  we  should  not  be  too  ready  to  cast  blame  upon 
her.  It  is  true  that,  in  order  to  break  the  coalition  that  had  been 
formed  against  her,  she  bartered  away  the  liberties  of  the  Hellenic 
cities  in  Asia  ;  but  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  this  measure  was 


THE  BAN  SUPREMACY.  255 

dictated  by  the  instinct  of  self-preservation.  There  were  at  Sparta 
some  at  least  animated  by  feelings  of  sufficiently  generous  patri- 
otism to  cause  them  to  lament  the  circumstances  that  thus  laid 
Greece  open  to  the  mercy  of  her  enemy.  Among  these  was  the 
patriot  king  Agesilaus,  whom  Plutarch  calls  the  "Thought  Com- 
mander and  King  of  all  Greece."  Referring  to  the  jealousies  and 
contentions  of  the  Hellenic  states  which  had  how  resulted  in  mak- 
ing the  hated  Persians  arbiters  in  their  affairs,  he  exclaimed,  "  Alas 
for  Greece  !  she  has  killed  enough  of  her  sons  to  have  conquered 
all  these  Barbarians." 

The  Peace  of  x\ntalcidas  left  Sparta  free  to  prosecute  anew  her 
schemes  of  aggression  and  tyranny  towards  the  other  Grecian 
states,  which  were  now  too  divided  and  weakened  to  offer  any  effec- 
tual resistance  to  her  oppressiye  course.  But  finally  the  fiery 
resentment  kindled  by  her  tyrannous  measures  inspired  such 
a  determined  revolt  against  her  as  brought  to  an  end  her  assumed 
supremacy  over  her  sister  cities. 

Theban  Supremacy  (371-362  e.g.).  —  It  was  a  city  in  Boeotia 
that  led  the  uprising  against  Sparta.  This  was  Thebes.  The  oli- 
garchical government  which  the  Lacedaemonians  had  set  up  in  that 
capital  was  overthrown  by  Pelopidas  at  the  head  of  the  so-called 
Sacred  Band,  a  company  of  three  hundred  select  men  who  were 
bound  by  oath  to  stand  by  each  other  to  the  last.  Pelopidas  was 
seconded  in  all  his  efforts  by  Epaminondas,  one  of  the  ablest 
generals  the  Grecian  race  ever  produced.  Under  the  masterly 
guidance  and  inspiration  of  these  patriot  leaders,  Thebes  very 
soon  secured  a  predominating  influence  in  the  affairs  of  Greece. 

Like  many  others  who  have  done  most  for  their  generation, 
Epaminondas  was  often  unjustly  accused  and  persecuted.  He  it 
was  who,  when  his  enemies  sought  to  disgrace  and  annoy  him  by 
electing  him  "  pubHc  scavenger,"  made,  in  accepting  the  office, 
the  memorable  utterance,  "  If  the  office  will  not  reflect  honor  upon 
me,  I  will  reflect  honor  upon  it." 

At  Leuctra  (371  B.C.)  the  Thebans  earned  the  renown  of  being 
the  most  invincible  soldiers  in  the  world  by  completely  overthrow- 


256  THE  PELOPONNESIAN   WAR. 

ing,  with  a  force  of  six  thousand  men,  the  Spartan  army  of  twice 
that  number.  This  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  time  that  the 
Spartans  were  ever  fairly  defeated  in  open  battle.  Their  forces  had 
been  annihilated,  as  at  Thermopylae,  —  but  annihilation  is  not 
defeat. 

From  the  victory  of  Leuctra  dates  the  short  but  brilhant  period 
of  Theban  hegemony.  The  year  after  that  battle  Epaminondas 
led  an  army  into  the  Peloponnesus  to  aid  the  Arcadians,  who 
had  risen  against  Sparta.  Laconia  was  ravaged,  and  for  the 
first  time  Spartan  women  saw  the  smoke  of  fires  kindled  by  an 
enemy. 

To  strengthen  Arcadia's  power  of  resistance  to  Sparta,  Epami- 
nondas perfected  a  league  among  the  hitherto  isolated  towns  and 
cantons  of  the  district.  As  the  mutual  jealousies  of  the  leading 
cities  prevented  him  from  making  any  one  of  them  the  capital  of 
the  confederation,  he  founded  Megalopolis,  or  the  Great  City,  and 
made  it  the  head  of  the  union. 

In  the  pursuit  of  the  same  pohcy,  Epaminondas  also  restored 
the  independence  of  Messenia,  thus  enforcing  upon  Sparta  in 
regard  to  this  province  the  terms  of  the  Peace  of  Antalcidas. 
That  the  liberated  Messenians  might  be  better  able  to  maintain 
the  independence  he  had  restored  to  them,  Epaminondas  founded 
as  a  stronghold  a  city,  called  Messene,  upon  Mount  Ithome,  a 
rocky  eminence  made  renowned  through  its  heroic  defence  by 
the  Messenians  in  their  old-time  wars  with  Sparta. 

Thus,  almost  in  a  day,  did  Epaminondas,  as  he  himself  said, 
"make  all  Greece  free,  restore  independence  to  Messenia,  and 
surround  Sparta  with  a  perpetual  blockade." 

But,  moved  by  jealousy  of  the  rapidly  growing  power  of  Thebes, 
Athens  now  formed  an  aUiance  with  her  old  rival  Sparta  against 
her.  Three  times  more  did  Epaminondas  lead  an  army  into  the 
Peloponnesus  in  the  interest  of  Thebes,  and  for  the  furtherance 
of  his  ambitious  plans.  During  his  fourth  and  last  expedition  he 
fought  mth  the  Spartans  and  Athenians  the  great  battle  of  Manti- 
nea,  in  iVrcadia.     On  this  memorable  field,  Epaminondas  led  the 


THE  BAN  SUPREMACY.  257 

Thebans  once  more  to  victory ;  but  he  himself  was  slain,  and  with 
him  fell  the  hopes  and  power  of  Thebes  (362  B.C.). 

All  the  states  of  Greece  now  lay  exhausted,  worn  out  by  their 
endless  domestic  contentions  and  wars.  There  was  scarcely  suffi- 
cient strength  left  to  strike  one  worthy  blow  against  enslavement 
by  the  master  destined  soon  to  come  from  the  North. 


^ 


258  EMPIRE    OF  ALEXANDER. 


CHAPTER   VIIL 

PERIOD   OF   MACEDONIAN   SUPREMACY:    EMPIRE   OF 
ALEXANDER. 

(338-323    B.C.) 

Macedonian  Eulers  of  Hellenic  Race. — Although  political 
power  and  influence  have  now  passed  away  from  the  Grecian 
cities  of  Sparta,  Athens,  and  Thebes,  still  we  must  not  think  that 
political  authority  has  departed  from  the  Hellenic  race ;  for 
though  the  mass  of  the  population  of  the  country  of  Macedonia, 
which  lay  to  the  north  of  Greece  proper,  and  which  is  now  to 
assume  the  lead  in  the  civil  affairs  of  the  Greeks,  may  not  have 
sprung  from  the  same  identical  stock  as  that  from  which  the 
Hellenes  arose,  still  the  ruling  class  of  that  country  were  the  same 
in  race,  language,  and  religion.  The  kings  even  took  part  in  the 
Olympian  games  —  a  privilege  accorded  to  none  but  pure  Hellenes. 
Their  efforts  to  spread  Greek  art  and  culture  among  their  subjects, 
a  race  of  rough  but  brave  and  martial  men,  unaccustomed  to  city 
life,  had  been  so  far  successful  that  the  country  had,  to  a  certain 
degree,  become  Hellenized. 

So  this  period  of  Macedonian  supremacy  upon  which  we  are 
entering  belongs  to  the  history  of  the  political  life  of  the  Greek 
race,  as  well  as  the  eras  marked  by  Athenian,  Spartan,  or  Theban 
leadership.  It  was  Hellenic  institutions,  customs,  and  manners, 
Hellenic  language  and  civilization,  that  the  Macedonians,  in  the 
extended  conquests  which  we  are  about  to  narrate,  spread  over 
the  world.^  It  is  this  which  makes  the  short-lived  Macedonian 
empire  so  important  in  universal  history. 

1  Of  course  it  was  rather  the  outer  forms  than  the  real  inner  life  and  spirit 
of  the  old  Greek  civilization  which  were  adopted  by  the  non-Hellenic  peoples 


PHILIP   OF  MAC  ED  ON.  259 

PMlip  of  Macedon.  —  Macedonia  first  rose  to  importance  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Philip  II.  (359-336  B.C.),  better  known  as  PhiUp 
of  Macedon.  He  was  a  man  of  pre-eminent  abiUty,  of  wonderful 
address  in  diplomacy,  and  possessed  rare  genius  as  an  organizer 
and  military  chieftain.  The  art  of  war  he  had  learned  in  youth 
as  a  hostage-pupil  of  Epaminondas  of  Thebes.  He  was  the 
originator  of  the  ''  Macedonian  phalanx,"  a  body  as  renowned  in 
the  military  history  of  Macedonia  as  is  the  "  legion  "  in  that  of 
Rome.^ 

With  his  kingdom  settled  and  consolidated  at  home,  Philip's 
ambition  led  him  to  seek  the  leadership  of  the  Grecian  states. 
He  sought  to  gain  his  purpose  rather  by  artful  diplomacy  and 
intrigue  than  by  open  force.  In  the  use  of  these  weapons  he 
might  have  been  the  teacher  of  the  Athenian  Themistocles. 

Conquest  of  Olynthus  and  Thrace.  —  By  force  and  intrigue 
Philip  extended  his  power  over  the  Greek  cities  of  Chalcidice,  a 
number  of  which  under  the  lead  of  Olynthus  formed  a  league 
known  as  the  Olynthian  Confederacy.  The  Athenians  had  inter- 
ests in  this  quarter,  several  cities  of  the  peninsula  being  subject  to 
them,  and  they,  as  soon  as  their  eyes  were  opened  to  Phihp's  real 
designs  by  his  treacherous  dealings  with  them,  set  themselves  to 
thwart  his  plans.  But  they  unfortunately  acted  with  little  of  their 
old-time  energy,  and  the  result  was  that  Philip  had  very  much  his 
own  way.  He  first  made  friends  of  the  Olynthians,  and  then,  in 
punishment  for  their  having  given  up  their  alliance  with  him  for 
one  with  Athens,  he  took  and  destroyed  Olynthus,  and  sold  the 

of  Egypt  and  Western  Asia.  Hence  the  resulting  culture  is  given  a  special 
name.  "This  civilization,  Greek  in  its  general  character,  but  pervading  peo- 
ple not  exclusively  Greek  by  race,  is  properly  called  Hellenism,  which  means, 
—  not  '  ^mrf  Hellenes,' or  Greeks,  but  —  'doing  like  Hellenes';  and  as  the 
adject 've  answering  to  Hellas  is  Helletiic,  so  the  adjective  answering  to  Hel- 
lenism  is  Ilelleiiisiic.^^  —  Jebb,  Greek  Literature,  p.  138. 

1  The  phalanx  M'as  formed  of  soldiers  drawn  up  sixteen  files  deep,  and 
armed  with  pikes  so  long  that  those  of  the  first  five  ranks  projected  beyond 
the  front  of  the  column,  thus  opposing  a  perfect  thicket  of  spears  to  the  enemy. 
On  level  ground  it  was  irresistible. 


260  EMPIRE    OF  ALEXANDER. 

inhabitants  into  slavery  (348  B.C.).  He  also  destroyed  thirty  other 
towns  in  the  peninsula.  Thus  all  Chalcidice  became  a  part  of 
Macedonia. 

Meanwhile  Philip  was  also  subduing  the  barbarians  of  Thrace, 
and  pushing  his  eastern  frontier  towards  the  Hellespont.  All  the 
western  part  of  Thrace,  with  its  rich  gold  mines,  quickly  fell  into 
his  hands.  In  this  quarter  he  founded  the  important  and  well- 
known  city  of  Philippi.^  At  a  later  period,  his  attempt  against 
Byzantium  was  foiled  by  the  Athenians,  who  aided  the  inhabitants 
in  the  defence  of  their  city,  because  it  was  the  key  to  the  Black 
Sea  region,  in  the  trade  of  which  the  Athenians  were  deeply  inter- 
ested, as  they  drew  from  thence  their  supplies  of  corn. 

The  Second  Sacred  War  (355-346  b.c). — At  the  same  time 
that  Philip  was  thus  extending  his  power  over  Thrace  and  the 
Greek  cities  of  Chalcidice,  he  was,  in  the  following  way,  acquiring 
a  commanding  position  in  the  affairs  of  the  states  of  Greece 
proper. 

The  Phocians  had  put  to  secular  use  some  of  the  lands  which, 
at  the  end  of  the  First  Sacred  War  (see  p.  183),  had  been  conse- 
crated to  the  Delphian  Apollo.  Taken  to  task  and  heavily  fined 
for  this  act  by  the  other  members  of  the  Delphian  Amphictyony, 
the  Phocians  deliberately  robbed  the  temple,  and  used  the  treas- 
ure in  the  maintenance  of  a  large  force  of  mercenary  soldiers. 
Thus  they  were  enabled  to  hold  out  against  all  their  enemies,  chief 
among  whom  were  the  Thebans.  The  Amphictyons  not  being 
able  to  punish  the  Phocians  for  their  impiety,  were  forced  to  ask 
help  of  Philip,  who  gladly  rendered  the  assistance  sought. 

The  Phocians  were  now  quickly  subdued,  their  cities  were 
destroyed,  and  the  inhabitants  scattered  in  villages  and  forced  to 
pay  tribute  to  the  Delphian  Apollo.  The  place  that  the  Phocians 
had  held  in  the  Delphian  Amphictyony  was  given  to  Philip,  upon 

1  Philippi  was  the  first  European  city  in  which  the  Gospel  was  preached. 
The  preacher  was  the  Apostle  Paul,  who  went  over  from  Asia  in  obedience  to 
the  vision  in  which  a  man  of  Macedonia  seemed  to  stand  and  pray,  "  Come 
over  into  Macedonia,  and  help  us." 


BATTLE    OF  CH^RONEA.  261 

whom  was  also  bestowed  the  privilege  of  presiding  at  the  Pythian 
games.  The  position  he  had  now  secured  was  just  what  PhiUp 
had  coveted,  in  order  that  he  might  use  it  to  make  himself  master 
of  all  Greece. 

Battle  of  Chaeronea  (338  b.c).  —  Demosthenes  at  Athens  was 
one  of  the  few  who  seemed  to  understand  the  real  designs  of 
PhiHp.  His  penetration,  like  that  of  Pericles,  descried  a  cloud 
lowering  over  Greece  —  this  time  from  the  North.  With  all  the 
energy  of  his  wonderful  eloquence,  he  strove  to  stir  up  the 
Athenians  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  the  king  of  Macedon. 
He  hurled  against  him  his  famous  "  PhiHppics,"  speeches  so  filled 
with  fierce  denunciation  that  they  have  given  name  to  all  writings 
characterized  by  bitter  criticism  or  violent  invective. 

At  length  the  Athenians  and  Thebans,  aroused  by  the  oratory 
of  Demosthenes  and  by  some  fresh  encroachments  of  the  Mace- 
donians, united  their  forces,  and  met  Philip  upon  the  memorable 
field  of  Chaeronea  in  Boeotia.  The  Macedonian  phalanx  swept 
everything  before  it.  The  Theban  band  was  annihilated.  The 
power  and  authority  of  Philip  were  now  extended  and  acknowl- 
edged throughout  Greece  {2,2,^  B.C.). 

Plan  to  Invade  Asia.  —  While  the  Greek  states  were  divided 
among  themselves,  they  were  united  in  an  undying  hatred  of  the 
Persians.  They  were  at  this  time  meditating  an  enterprise  fraught 
with  the  greatest  importance  to  the  history  of  the  world.  This 
was  a  joint  expedition  against  Persia.  The  march  of  the  Ten 
Thousand  Greeks  through  the  very  heart  of  the  dominions  of  the 
Great  King  had  encouraged  this  national  undertaking,  and  illus- 
trated the  feasibility  of  the  conquest  of  Asia.  At  a  great  council 
of  the  Grecian  cities  held  at  Corinth,  Philip  was  chosen  leader  of 
this  expedition.  All  Greece  was  astir  with  preparation.  In  the 
midst  of  all,  PhiHp  was  assassinated  during  the  festivities  attending 
the  marriage  of  his  daughter,  and  his  son  Alexander  succeeded  to 
his  place  and  power  {t^t,^  b.c). 

Alexander  the  Great.  —  Alexander  was  only  twenty  years  of 
age  when  he  came  to  his  father's  throne.     The  genius  which  has 


262 


EMPIRE   OF  ALEXANDER. 


won  for  him  the  title  of  "  Great  "  was  foreshadowed  in  early  youth. 
The  familiar  and  well-told  story  of  the  vicious  steed  Bucephalus, 
which  none  dared  mount  or  approach,  but  which  was  subdued  in 
a  moment  by  the  boy  Alexander,  exhibits  that  subtle  magnetism 


HEAD    OF   ALEXANDER    THE   GREAT. 


of  his  nature  by  which  he  acquired  such  wonderful  influence  and 
command  over  men  in  after-years.  The  spirit  of  the  man  is  again 
shown  in  the  complaint  of  the  boy  when  news  of  his  father's 
victories   came   to    him :    "  Friends,"   said  he   to  his  playmates, 


ALEXANDER    CROSSES    THE   HELLESPONT.  263 

"  my  father  will  possess  himself  of  everything,  and  leave  nothing 
for  us  to  do." 

Alexander  crosses  the  Hellespont  (334  b.c).  —  For  about  two 
years  Alexander  was  busy  suppressing  revolts  against  his  power 
among  the  different  cities  of  Hellas,  and  chastising  hostile  tribes 
on  the  northern  frontiers  of  Macedonia.  Thebes  having  risen 
against  him,  he  razed  the  city  to  the  ground,  —  sparing,  however, 
the  house  of  the  poet  Pindar,  —  and  sold  thirty  thousand  of  the 
inhabitants  into  slavery.  Thus  was  one  of  the  most  renowned  of 
the  cities  of  Greece  blotted  out  of  existence. 

Alexander  was  now  free  to  carry  out  his  father's  scheme  in 
regard  to  the  Asiatic  expedition.  In  the  spring  of  334  b.c,  with 
all  his  plans  matured,  he  set  out,  at  the  head  of  an  army  number- 
ing about  thirty-five  thousand  men,  for  the  conquest  of  the  Persian 
Empire.  Now  commenced  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and 
swiftly  executed  campaigns  recorded  in  history. 

Crossing  the  Hellespont,  Alexander  routed  the  Persians  at  the 
important  battle  of  the  Granicus,  by  which  victory  all  Asia  Minor 
was  laid  open  to  the  invader.  Three  hundred  suits  of  armor, 
selected  from  the  spoils  of  the  field,  were  sent  as  a  votive  offering 
to  the  Temple  of  Athena  at  Athens. 

The  Gordian  Knot.  —  On  Alexander's  route  through  Asia  Minor 
was  the  city  of  Gordium,  where,  in  the  temple  of  Zeus,  hung 
the  celebrated  Gordian  knot.  Respecting  this  the  following  story 
is  told :  An  oracle  had  commanded  the  Phrygians,  in  a  time  of 
great  perplexity,  to  choose  as  their  king  the  first  person  that  came 
to  sacrifice  in  the  Temple  of  Zeus.  The  peasant  Gordius  was 
the  one  whom  chance  designated.  He  was  riding  in  a  wagon 
when  the  people  proclaimed  him  king.  Some  accounts,  however, 
say  that  it  was  his  son  Midas  —  who  was  A^ith  his  father  —  that 
was  elevated  to  the  throne.  Grateful  to  the  gods  for  the  honor 
that  had  fallen  upon  his  house,  Gordius  consecrated  the  wagon  as 
a  memorial  in  the  temple  of  Zeus. 

It  was  gradually  spread  abroad  that  an  oracle  had  declared  that 
whoever  should  untie  the  skilfully  fastened  knot  which  united  the 


264  EMPIRE    OF  ALEXANDER. 

yoke  to  the  pole  of  the  chariot  would  be  master  of  Asia.  Alex- 
ander attempted  the  feat.  Unable  to  loosen  the  artful  knot,  he 
impetuously  drew  his  sword  and  cut  it.  Hence  the  phrase  "  cut- 
ting the  Gordian  knot,"  meaning  a  short  way  out  of  a  difficulty. 
The  marvellous  fulfilment  of  the  prediction  in  the  subsequent  suc- 
cesses of  Alexander  gave  new  faith  and  credit  to  the  oracle. 

The  Battle  of  Issus  {-^^i?)  e.g.).  —  At  the  northeast  corner 
of  the  Mediterranean  lies  the  plain  of  Issus.  Here  Alexander 
again  defeated  the  Persian  army,  numbering  six  hundred  thousand 
men.  The  family  of  Darius,  including  his  mother,  wife,  and  chil- 
dren, fell  into  the  hands  of  Alexander ;  but  the  king  himself 
escaped  from  the  field,  and  hastened  to  his  capital,  Susa,  to  raise 
another  army  to  oppose  the  march  of  the  conqueror. 

Siege  of  Tyre  (332  b.c).  —  Before  penetrating  to  the  heart  of 
the  empire,  Alexander  turned  to  the  south,  in  order  to  effect  the 
subjugation  of  Phoenicia;  that  he  might  command  the  Phoenician 
fleets  and  prevent  their  being  used  to  sever  his  communication 
with  Greece.  The  island  city  of  Tyre,  after  a  memorable  siege, 
was  taken  by  means  of  a  mole,  or  causeway,  built  with  incredible 
labor  through  the  sea  to  the  city.  This  mole  was  constructed  out 
of  the  ruins  of  old  Tyre  and  the  forests  of  Lebanon.  It  still 
remains,  uniting  the  forlorn  rock  with  the  mainland.  When  at 
last,  with  the  aid  of  the  Sidonian  fleet,  the  city  was  taken,  after 
a  siege  of  seven  months,  eight  thousand  of  the  inhabitants  were 
slain,  and  thirty  thousand  sold  into  slavery  —  a  terrible  warning 
to  those  cities  that  should  dare  to  close  their  gates  against  the 
Macedonian.  The  reduction  of  Tyre  has  been  considered  the 
greatest  military  achievement  of  Alexander. 

Alexander  in  Egypt. — With  the  cities  of  Phoenicia  and  the 
fleets  of  the  Mediterranean  subject  to  his  control,  Alexander  easily 
effected  the  conquest  of  Egypt.  The  Egyptians,  indeed,  made  no 
resistance  to  the  Macedonians,  but  willingly  exchanged  masters. 

While  in  the  country,  Alexander  founded,  at  one  of  the  mouths 
of  the  Nile,  a  city  called  after  himself,  Alexandria.  Ranke  be- 
lieves this  to  ha.ve   been  the  "  first  city  in  the  world,  after  the 


r 


55 


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65 


70 


75 


80 


85 


Mexatx-ltia  ■ 


50 


DOMINIONS 
AND  DEPENDENCIES  OF 

ALEXANDER 

C.B.C.323. 


\j^ 


45 


jl/aracarula 
O    „ 


I  A    N    A. 


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rr    R    S    A  ^ 

i;  i^  r  TjYs^ — - 


55 


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70 


THE   BATTLE    OF  ARBELA.  265 

Piraeus  at  Athens,  erected  expressly  for  purposes  of  commerce." 
The  city  became  the  meeting-place  of  the  East  and  the  West ; 
and  its  importance  through  many  centuries  attests  the  far-sighted 
wisdom  of  its  founder. 

A  less  worthy  enterprise  of  the  conqueror  was  his  expedition  to 
the  oasis  of  Siwah,  located  in  the  Libyan  desert,  where  were  a  cel- 
ebrated temple  and  oracle  of  Zeus  Ammon.  To  gratify  his  own 
vanity,  as  well  as  to  impress  the  superstitious  barbarians,  Alexander 
desired  to  be  declared  of  celestial  descent.  The  priests  of  the 
temple,  in  accordance  with  the  wish  of  the  king,  gave  out  that  the 
oracle  pronounced  Alexander  to  be  the  son  of  Zeus  Ammon,  and 
the  destined  ruler  of  the  world. 

The  Battle  of  Arbela  (331  b.c).  —  From  Egypt  Alexander 
recommenced  his  march  towards  the  Persian  capital.  He  had 
received  offers  of  peace  from  Darius,  but  to  these  he  is  said  to 
have  replied,  "  There  cannot  be  two  suns  in  the  heavens."  Pushing 
on,  he  crossed  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris  without  opposition ; 
but  upon  the  plain  of  Arbela,  not  far  from  ancient  Nineveh,  he 
found  his  further  advance  disputed  by  Darius  with  an  immense 
army.  Again  the  Macedonian  phalanx  "  cut  through  the  ranks  of 
the  Persians  as  a  boat  cuts  through  the  waves."  The  fate  of 
Darius  has  been  already  narrated  in  our  story  of  the  last  of  the 
Persian  kings.^ 

The  battle  of  Arbela  was  one  of  the  decisive  combats  of  history. 
It  marked  the  end  of  the  long  struggle  between  the  East  and  the 
West,  between  Persia  and  Greece,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the 
spread  of  Hellenic  civilization  over  all  Western  Asia. 

Alexander  at  Babylon,  Susa,  and  Persepolis.  —  From  the  field 
of  Arbela  Alexander  marched  south  to  Babylon,  which  opened  its 
gates  to  him  without  opposition.  To  attach  the  Babylonians  to 
himself,  he  restored  the  temples  which  Xerxes  had  destroyed,  and 
offered  sacrifices  in  the  temple  of  Bel. 

Susa  was  next   entered   by  the   conqueror.      Here    he    seized 

1  See  pp.  142,  143. 


266  EMPIRE    OF  ALEXANDER. 

incredible  quantities  of  gold  and  silver  (^57,000,000,  it  is  said), 
the  treasure  of  the  Great  King. 

From  Susa  Alexander's  march  was  next  directed  to  Persepolis, 
where  he  secured  a  treasure  more  than  twice  as  great  ($138,000,- 
000,  according  to  some)  as  that  found  at  Susa.  Upon  Persepolis 
Alexander  wreaked  vengeance,  for  all  Greece  had  suffered  at  the 
hands  of  the  Persians.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  were  massacred, 
and  others  sold  into  slavery  ;  while  the  palaces  of  the  Persian  kings 
were  given  to  the  flames. 

xMexander,  having  thus  overthrown  the  power  of  Darius,  now 
began  to  regard  himself,  not  only  as  his  conqueror,  but  as  his  suc- 
cessor, and  was  thus  looked  upon  by  the  Persians.  He  assumed 
the  pomp  and  state  of  an  Oriental  monarch,  and  required  the  most 
obsequious  homage  from  all  who  approached  him.  His  Greek 
and  Macedonian  companions,  unused  to  paying  such  servile 
adulation  to  their  king,  were  much  displeased  at  Alexander's 
conduct,  and  from  this  time  on  to  his  death,  intrigues  and  con- 
spiracies were  being  constantly  formed  among  them  against  his 
power  and  life. 

Alexander  in  the  Aryan  Home.  — Urged  on  by  an  uncontrol- 
lable desire  to  possess  himself  of  the  most  remote  countries  of 
which  any  accounts  had  ever  reached  him,  Alexander  now  led  his 
army  to  the  north,  and,  after  subduing  many  tribes  that  dwelt 
about  the  Caspian  Sea  and  among  the  mountainous  regions  of 
what  is  now  known  as  Afghanistan,  boldly  conducted  his  soldiers 
over  the  snowy  and  dangerous  passes  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  and 
descended  into  the  fair  provinces  of  Bactria,  which  region  we  have 
already  described  as  probably  the  earliest  home  of  the  various 
families  of  the  Aryan  race.  Had  Alexander  possessed  our  modern 
knowledge  of  the  relationships  of  the  different  Aryan  peoples,  he 
might  have  claimed,  as  he  would  have  been  very  likely  to  do, 
the  entire  country  as  having  once  belonged  to  his  ancestors. 

During  the  years  329-328  B.C.  Alexander  conquered  not  only 
Bactria,  but  Sogdiana,  a  country  lying  north  of  the  Oxus.  The 
capture   of  the    Sogdian   Rock   is  considered   one  of  his   great 


CONQUESTS  IN  INDIA.  267 

exploits.  Among  the  captives  was  a  beautiful  Bactrian  princess, 
Roxana  by  name,  who  became  the  bride  of  Alexander. 

Throughout  those  distant  regions  Alexander  founded  numerous 
cities,  several  of  which  bore  his  own  name.  One  of  them  is  said 
to  have  been  built,  wall  and  houses,  in  twenty  days.  These  new 
cities  were  peopled  with  captives,  and  by  those  whom  fatigue  and 
wounds  would  no  longer  allow  to  follow  the  conqueror  in  his  swift 
campaigns. 

Alexander's  stay  in  Sogdiana  was  saddened  by  his  murder  of 
his  dearest  friend  Clitus,  who  had  saved  his  life  at  the  Granicus. 
Both  were  flushed  with  wine  when  the  quarrel  arose  :  after  the 
deed,  Alexander  was  overwhelmed  with  remorse.^ 

Conquests  in  India.  —  With  the  countries  north  of  the  Hindu 
Kush  subdued  and  settled,  Alexander  recrossed  the  mountains, 
and  led  his  army  down  upon  the  rich  and  crowded  plains  of 
India  (327  B.C.).  Here  again  he  showed  himself  invincible,  and 
received  the  submission  of  many  of  the  native  princes  of  the 
countrv. 

The  most  formidable  resistance  encountered  by  the  Macedo- 
nians was  offered  by  a  strong  and  wealthy  king  named  Porus. 
Captured  at  last  and  brought  into  the  presence  of  Alexander,  his 
proud  answer  to  the  conqueror's  question  as  to  how  he  thought  he 
ought  to  be  treated  was,  "  Like  a  king."  The  impulsive  Alexander 
gave  him  back  his  kingdom,  to  be  held,  however,  subject  to  the 
Macedonian  crown. 

Alexander's  desire  was  to  extend  his  conquests  to  the  Ganges, 
but  his  soldiers  began  to  murmur  because  of  the  length  and  hard- 
ness of  their  campaigns,  and  he  reluctantly  gave  up  the  under- 
taking. To  secure  the  conquests  already  made,  he  founded,  at 
different  points  in  the  valley  of  the  Indus,  Greek  towns  and  colo- 

^  The  Macedonian  kingdom  which  grew  out  of  the  conquests  of  Alexander 
in  Central  Asia,  lasted  for  about  two  centuries  after  his  death ;  that  is,  these 
Bactrian  countries  were  ruled  by  Hellenic  princes  for  that  length  of  time.  Tra- 
ditions of  the  conqueror  still  linger  in  the  land,  and  coins,  and  plate  with  sub- 
jects from  classic  mythology,  are  frequently  turned  up  at  the  present  day. 


268  EMPIRE    OF  ALEXANDER. 

nies.  One  of  these  he  named  Alexandria,  after  himself;  another 
Bucephala,  in  memory  of  his  favorite  steed ;  and  still  another 
Nicaea,  for  his  victories.  The  modern  museum  at  Lahore  con- 
tains many  relics  of  Greek  art,  dug  up  on  the  site  of  these  Mace- 
donian cities  and  camps. 

Rediscovery  of  the  Sea-route  from  the  Indus  to  the  Euphra- 
tes. —  It  was  Alexander's  next  care  to  bind  these  distant  con- 
quests in  the  East  to  those  in  the  West.  To  do  this,  it  was  of  the 
first  importance  to  establish  water-communication  between  India 
and  Babylonia.  Now,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  Greeks  had  no 
positive  knowledge  of  what  sea  the  Indus  emptied  into,  and  only 
a  vague  idea  that  there  was  a  water-way  from  the  Indus  to  the 
Euphrates.  This  important  maritime  route,  once  known  to  the 
civilized  world,  had  been  lost,  and  needed  to  be  rediscovered. 

So  the  conqueror  Alexander  now  turned  explorer.  He  sailed 
down  the  Indus  to  the  head  of  the  delta,  where  he  founded  a  city, 
which  he  called  Alexandria.  This  was  to  be  to  the  trade  of  India 
what  Alexandria  upon  the  Nile  was  to  that  of  Egypt.  With  this 
new  commercial  city  established,  Alexander  sailed  on  down  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  and  was  rejoiced  to  find  himself  looking  out 
upon  the  southern  ocean. 

He  now  despatched  his  trusty  admiral  Nearchus,  with  a  consid' 
arable  fleet,  to  explore  this  sea,  and  to  determine  whether  it  com- 
municated with  the  Euphrates.  He  himself,  with  the  larger  part 
of  the  army,  marched  westward  along  the  coast.  His  march  thus 
lay  through  the  ancient  Gedrosia,  now  Beluchistan,  a  region  fright- 
ful with  burning  deserts,  amidst  which  his  soldiers  endured  almost 
incredible  privations  and  sufferings. 

After  a  trying  and  calamitous  march  of  over  two  months,  Alex- 
ander, with  the  survivors  of  his  army,  reached  Carmania.  Here, 
to  his  unbounded  joy,  he  was  joined  by  -Nearchus,  who  had  made 
the  voyage  from  the  Indus  successfully,  and  thus  "  rediscovered 
one  of  the  most  important  maritime  routes  of  the  world,"  the 
knowledge  of  which,  among  the  Western  nations,  was  never  again 
to  be  lost. 


PLANS  AND   DEATH  OF  ALEXANDER.  269 

To  appropriately  celebrate  his  conquests  and  discoveries,  Alex- 
ander instituted  a  series  of  religious  festivals,  amidst  which  his 
soldiers  forgot  the  dangers  of  their  numberless  battles  and  the 
hardships  of  their  unparalleled  marches,  which  had  put  to  the  test 
every  power  of  human  endurance. 

And  well  might  these  veterans  glory  in  their  achievements.  In 
a  few  years  they  had  conquered  half  the  world,  and  changed  the 
whole  course  of  history. 

Plans  and  Death  of  Alexander.  —  As  the  capital  of  his  vast 
empire,  which  now  stretched  from  the  Ionian  Sea  to  the  Indus, 
Alexander  chose  the  ancient  Babylon,  upon  the  Euphrates.  His 
designs,  we  have  reason  to  believe,  were  to  push  his  conquests  as 
far  to  the  west  as  he  had  extended  them  to  the  east.  Arabia,  Car- 
thage, Italy,  and  Spain  were  to  be  added  to  his  already  vast 
domains.  Indeed,  the  plans  of  Alexander  embraced  nothing  less 
than  the  union  and  Hellenizing  of  the  world.  Not  only  were  the 
peoples  of  Asia  and  Europe  to  be  blended  by  means  of  colonies, 
but  even  the  floras  of  the  two  continents  were  to  be  intermingled 
by  the  transplanting  of  fruits  and  trees  from  one  continent  to  the 
other.  Common  laws  and  customs,  a  common  language  and  a 
common  religion,  were  to  unite  the  world  into  one  great  family. 
Intermarriages  were  to  blend  the  races.  Alexander  himself  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  Darius  III.,  and  also  one  of  Artaxerxes  Ochus  ; 
and  to  ten  thousand  of  his  soldiers,  whom  he  encouraged  to  take 
Asiatic  wives,  he  gave  magnificent  gifts. 

In  the  midst  of  his  vast  projects,  Alexander  was  seized  by  a 
fever,  brought  on,  doubtless,  by  his  insane  excesses,  and  died 
at  Babylon,  323  B.C.,  in  the  thirty-second  year  of  his  age.  His 
soldiers  could  not  let  him  die  without  seeing  him.  The  watchers 
of  the  palace  were  obliged  to  open  the  doors  to  them,  and  the 
veterans  of  a  hundred  battle-fields  filed  sorrowfully  past  the  couch 
of  their  dying  commander.  His  body  was  carried,  first,  to  Mem- 
phis, but  afterwards  to  Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  and  there  enclosed  in 
a  golden  coffin,  over  which  was  raised  a  splendid  mausoleum. 
His  ambition  for  celestial  honors  was  gratified  in  his  death ;  for  in 


270  EMPIRE    OF  ALEXANDER. 

Egypt  and  elsewhere  temples  were  dedicated  to  him,  and  divine 
worship  was  paid  to  his  statues. 

Character  of  Alexander.  —  We  must  not  pass  this  point  with- 
out a  word,  at  least,  respecting  the  character  of  this  remarkable 
man,  who,  in  a  brief  career  of  twelve  years,  changed  entirely  the 
currents  of  history,  and  pressed  them  into  channels  which  they 
would  not  have  followed  but  for  the  influence  of  his  life  and 
achievements. 

We  cannot  deny  to  Alexander,  in  addition  to  a  remarkable 
genius  for  military  affairs,  a  profound  and  comprehensive  intellect. 
The  wisdom  shown  in  the  selection  of  Alexandria  in  Egypt  as  the 
great  depot  of  the  exchanges  of  the  East  and  West  has  been  amply 
proved  by  the  rare  fortunes  of  that  city.  His  plans  for  the  union 
of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  the  fusion  of  their  different  races,  might 
indeed  seem  visionary,  were  it  not  that  the  degree  in  which  this 
was  actually  realized  during  subsequent  centuries  attests  the  sanity 
of  the  attempt.  He  had  fine  tastes,  and  liberally  encouraged  art, 
science,  and  literature.  Apelles,  Praxiteles,  and  Lysippus  had  in 
him  a  munificent  patron ;  and  to  his  preceptor  Aristotle  he  sent 
large  collections  of  natural-history  objects,  gathered  in  his  extended 
expeditions.  He  had  an  impulsive,  kind,  and  generous  nature  : 
he  avenged  the  murder  of  his  enemy  Darius ;  and  he  repented  in 
bitter  tears  over  the  body  of  his  faithful  Clitus.  He  exposed  him- 
self like  the  commonest  soldier,  sharing  with  his  men  the  hard- 
ships of  the  march  and  the  dangers  of  the  battle-field. 

But  he  was  self-seeking  and  self-indulgent,  foolishly  vain,  and 
madly  ambitious  of  military  glory.  He  plunged  into  shameful 
excesses,  and  gave  way  to  bursts  of  passion  that  transformed  a 
usually  mild  and  generous  disposition  into  the  fury  of  a  madman. 
The  vindictive  cruelty  he  manifested  in  his  treatment  of  the  Tyrians 
can  be  only  partially  palliated  by  reference  to  the  spirit  and  usages 
of  his  age.  The  contradictions  of  his  life  cannot,  perhaps,  be 
better  expressed  than  in  the  words  once  applied  to  the  gifted 
Themistocles  :  "  He  was  greater  in  genius  than  in  character." 

Results  of  Alexander's  Conquests.  —  The  remarkable  conquests 


RESULTS   OF  ALEXANDER'S   CONQUESTS.  271 

of  Alexander  had  far-reaching  consequences.  They  ended  the 
long  struggle  between  Persia  and  Greece,  and  spread  Hellenic 
civilization  over  Egypt  and  Western  Asia.  The  distinction  be- 
tween Greek  and  Barbarian  was  obliterated,  and  the  sympathies 
of  men,  hitherto  so  narrow  and  local,  were  widened,  and  thus  an 
important  preparation  was  made  for  the  reception  of  the  cosmo- 
politan creed  of  Christianity.  The  world  was  also  given  a  universal 
language  of  culture,  which  was  a  further  preparation  for  the  spread 
of  Christian  teachings.  Nor  should  we  fail  to  recall  the  redis- 
covery of  the  maritime  route  from  India  to  Europe,  which  the 
historian  Ranke,  regarding  its  influence  upon  trade  and  com- 
merce, views  as  one  of  the  most  important  results  of  ^Alexander's 
expedition. 

But  the  evil  effects  of  the  conquest  were  also  positive  and  far- 
reaching.  The  sudden  acquisition  by  the  Greeks  of  the  enormous 
wealth  of  the  Persian  Empire,  and  contact  with  the  vices  and 
effeminate  luxury  of  the  Oriental  nations,  had  a  most  demoralizing 
effect  upon  Hellenic  life.  Greece  became  corrupt,  and  she  in 
turn  corrupted  Rome.  Thus  the  civilization  of  antiquity  was 
undermined. 


272 


EMPIRE    OF  ALEXANDER. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    SUMMARY    OF    GRECIAN    HISTORY   TO    THE 
DEATH  OF  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. 


Legendary  Age  . 

Early  History  of 
Sparta   .     . 


Early  History  of 
Athens . 


Period  of  Graeco- 
Persian  War  . 


Period  of  Athenian 
Supremacy 


Events  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  War    . 


Period  of  Spartan 
Supremacy 


Period  of  Theban 
Supremacy 


Period  of  Macedo- 
nian Supremacy  . 


The  Trojan  War,  legendary  date       .     . 
The  Dorians  enter  the  Peloponnesus,  about 

Lycurgus  gives  laws  to  Sparta.     . 
The  Messenian  Wars      .... 

Rule  of  the  Archons 

Rebellion  of  Cylon 

Legislation  of  Solon 

Pisistratus  rules 

Expulsion  of  the  Pisistratidse 

First  Expedition  of  Darius   (led  by  Mar- 

donius)      

Battle  of  Marathon 

Battle  of  Thermopylae 

Battle  of  Salamis 

Battles  of  Plataea  and  Mycale 

Athens  rebuilt 

Aristides  chosen  first  president  of  the  Con- 
federacy of  Delos 

Themistocles  sent  into  exile 

Ostracism  of  Cimon 

Pericles  at  the  head  of  affairs  —  Periclean 
Age 

Beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  War    . 

Pestilence  at  Athens 

Expedition  against  Syracuse 

Battle  of  yEgospotami 

Close  of  the  War 

Rule  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  at  Athens     .     . 
Expedition  of  the  Ten  Thousand       .     . 

Peace  of  Antalcidas 

Oligarchy  established  at  Thebes    .... 

Spartan  power  broken  on  the  field  of  Leuc- 

tra 

Battle  of  Leuctra  which  secures  the  suprem- 
acy of  Thebes 

Battle  of  Mantinea  and  death  of  Epaminon- 
das 

Battle  of  Chaeronea 

Death  of  Philip  of  Macedon 

Alexander  crosses  the  Hellespont      .     .     . 

Battle  of  Issus 

Battle  of  Arbela 

Death  of  Alexander  at  Babylon     .     .     .     . 


1 1 94-1 184 
1 104 

850 

750-650 

1050-612 

612 

594 

560-527 

492 
490 
480 
480 
479 
478 

477 
471 
459 

459-431 
431 
430 
415 
405 
404 

404-403 
401-400 

382 
371 

371 

362 

338 
336 
334 
ZZZ 
ZZ^ 
323 


DIVISION   OF   THE   EMPIRE    OF  ALEXANDER.  273 


CHAPTER    IX. 

STATES   FORMED    FROM    THE    EMPIRE    OF   ALEXANDER. 

Division  of  the  Empire  of  Alexander.  —  There  was  no  one 
who  could  wield  the  sword  that  fell  from  the  hand  of  Alexander. 
It  is  told  that,  when  dying,  being  asked  to  whom  the  kingdom 
should  belong,  he  rephed,  "To  the  strongest,"  and  handed  his 
signet  ring  to  his  general  Perdiccas.  But  Perdiccas  was  not  strong 
enough  to  master  the  difficulties  of  the  situation.^  Indeed,  who 
is  strong  enough  to  rule  the  world  ? 

Consequently  the  vast  empire  created  by  Alexander's  unpar- 
alleled conquests  was  distracted  by  quarrels  and  wars,  and  before 
the  close  of  the  fourth  century  B.C.,  had  become  broken  into  many 
fragments.     Besides  minor  states,^  four  well-defined  and  important 

1  Perdiccas  ruled  as  regent  for  Philip  Arridseus  (an  illegitimate  brother  of 
Alexander),  who  was  proclaimed  titular  king. 

2  Two  of  these  lesser  states,  Rhodes  and  Pontus,  deserve  special  notice. 
Rhodes.  —  Rhodes  became  the  head  of  a  maritime  confederation  of  the 

cities  and  islands  along  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  and  thus  laid  the  basis  of  a 
remarkable  commercial  prosperity  and  naval  power.  It  was  one  of  the  chief 
centres  of  Hellenistic  culture,  and  acquired  a  wide  fame  through  its  schools 
of  art  and  rhetoric.  Julius  Caesar  became  a  student  here  under  Rhodian 
teachers  of  oratory. 

Pontus.  —  Pontus  (Greek  for  sea),  a  state  of  Asia  Minor,  was  so  called 
from  its  position  upon  the  Euxine.  It  was  never  thoroughly  conquered  by  the 
Macedonians.  It  has  a  place  in  history  mainly  because  of  the  lustre  shed 
upon  it  by  the  transcendent  ability  of  one  of  its  kings,  Mithridates  the  Great 
(120-63  B.C.),  who  spread  the  fame  of  his  little  kingdom  throughout  the 
world  by  his  able,  and  for  a  long  time  successful,  resistance  to  the  Roman 
arms.  But  his  wars  with  Rome  belong  rather  to  the  history  of  that  city  than 
to  the  annals  of  Greece. 


274       STATES  FORMED  FROM  ALEXANDER'S  EMPIRE. 

monarchies  arose  out  of  the  ruins.  After  the  rearrangement  of 
boundaries  that  followed  the  decisive  battle  of  Ipsus  (fought  in 
Phrygia  301  B.C.),  these  principal  states  had  the  outlines  shown 
by  the  accompanying  map.  Their  rulers  were  Lysimachus,  Seleu- 
cus  Nicator,  Ptolemy,  and  Cassander,  who  had  each  assumed  the 
title  of  king.  The  great  horn  was  broken  ;  and  for  it  came  up  four 
notable  ones  toward  the  four  winds  of  heaven.^ 

Lysimachus  held  Thrace  and  the  western  part  of  Asia  Minor ; 
Seleucus  Nicator,  Syria  and  the  countries  eastward  to  the  Indus ; 
Ptolemy  ruled  Egypt ;  and  Cassander  governed  Macedonia,  and 
claimed  authority  over  Greece.^ 

After  barely  mentioning  the  fate  of  the  kingdom  of  Lysimachus, 
we  will  trace  very  briefly  the  fortunes  of  the  other  three  monarch-  . 
ies  until  they  were  overthrown,  one  after  the  other,  by  the  now 
rapidly  rising  power  of  Rome. 

Thrace,  or  the  King^dom  of  Lysimachus. — The  kingdom  of 
Lysimachus  soon  disappeared.  He  was  defeated  by  Seleucus  in 
the  year  281  B.C.,  and  his  dominions  were  divided.  The  lands 
in  Asia  Minor  were  joined  to  the  Syrian  kingdom,  v/hile  Thrace 
was  absorbed  by  Macedonia. 

Syria,  or  the  Kingdom  of  the  Seleucidse  (312-65  b.c). — 
This  kingdom,  during  the  two  centuries  and  more  of  its  existence, 
played  an  important  part  in  the  civil  history  of  the  world.  Under 
its  first  king  it  comprised  nominally  almost  all  the  countries  of 
Asia  conquered  by  Alexander,  thus  stretching  from  the  Hellespont 
to  the  Indus ;  but  in  reality  the  monarchy  embraced  only  Asia 
Minor,  Syria,  and  the  old  Assyria  and  Babylonia.  Its  rulers 
were  called  Seleucidse,  from  the  founder  of  the  kingdom,  Seleucus 
Nicator. 

Seleucus  Nicator  (312-280  B.C.),  besides  being  a  ruler  of 
unusual  abihty,  was  a  most  liberal  patron  of  learning  and  art.  He 
is  declared  to  have  been  "  the  greatest  founder  of  cities  that  ever 

1  Dan.  viii.  8. 

2  Cassander  never  secured  complete  control  of  Greece,  hence  this  country 
is  not  included  in  his  domains  as  these  appear  upon  the  map. 


55 


6o 


70 


75 


8o 


SS 


\  \  \ 


SO 


KINGDOMS 
of  the 

SUCCESSORS  of  ALEXANDER 

C.  B.  C.  300. 

DoTninions  of  Ptolemy         Q 


Aral 


45 


40 


/ 

l^^ 

t^ 

^    ^ 

'TV 

\ 

..-•■ 

J 

\v ./ 1 

^ ^ 

^ 

E^E 

/ 

/pa  R' 

1 

ifarac««f 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

-&      r              \ 

^ 

r^  \ 

^:rL  \..,.. .-^ 


I.      iff  u 


iJ 


CARMANIA 


GEDROSIA 


'■^ 


A 


30 


25 


^A^ 


A 


55 


do 


OS 


70 


SYRIA.  275 

lived."  Throughout  his  dominions  he  founded  a  vast  number, 
some  of  which  endured  for  many  centuries,  and  were  known  far 
and  wide  as  centres  of  trade  and  Hellenistic  civilization. 

Upon  the  Tigris,  as  a  rival  to  Babylon,  he  built  Seleucia,  which 
grew  rapidly  into  a  capital  of  six  hundred  thousand  inhabitants. 
In  its  customs,  manners,  and  government,  it  was  essentially  a 
Greek  city  transplanted  from  Europe.  As  Seleucia  rose,  Babylon 
sank  into  obscurity,  and  soon  disappeared  from  history.  Six  other 
cities  in  different  parts  of  his  empire  bore  the  name  Seleucia,  after 
himself;  sixteen  he  called  Antioch,  in  honor  of  his  father;  five  he 
named  Laodicea,  for  his  mother ;  still  others  bore  the  name 
Apamea,  in  honor  of  one  of  his  wives.  Antioch,  on  the  Orontes, 
in  Northern  Syria,  became,  after  Seleucia  on  the  Tigris,  the  capital 
of  the  kingdom,  and  obtained  an  influence  and  renown  as  a  centre 
of  population  and  trade  which  have  given  its  name  a  sure  place  in 
history.^ 

This  colonization  of  Western  Asia  by  Greeks  was,  as  has  already 
been  remarked,  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  results  of  the  Gr?eco- 
Macedonian  conquest.  The  founding  of  all  these  cities,  however, 
as  the  historian  Ranke  observes,  "  must  not  be  reckoned  solely 
to  the  credit  of  Seleucus  and  Alexander.  Their  origin  was 
closely  connected  with  the  main  tendencies  of  Greek  coloniza- 
tion. The  Greeks  had  stiiiggled  long  and  often  to  penetrate  into 
Asia,  but  so  long  as  the  Persian  empire  remained  supreme  they 
were  energetically  repulsed,  and  it  was  only  as  mercenaries 
that  they  found  admittance.  This  bar  was  now  removed. 
Released  from  all  restrictions  and  attracted  by  the  revolution 
in  politics,  the  Greeks  now  streamed  into  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and 
Egypt." 

The  successors  of  Seleucus  Nicator  led  the  kingdom  through 
checkered  fortunes.     On  different  sides  provinces  fell  away  and 

^  Antioch  still  remains;  but  most  of  the  other  cities  are  gone,  with  scarcely 
a  trace  left  of  their  former  existence.  Thus  the  site  of  the  great  capital  Seleu- 
cia, once  the  rival  of  Babylon,  is  now  marked  by  just  a  few  mounds  and  heaps 
of  rubbish. 


276       STATES  FORMED   FROM  ALEXANDER'S  EMPIRE. 

became  independent  states.^  Antiochus  III.  (223-187  B.C.),  called 
"  the  Great,"  raised  the  kingdom  for  a  short  time  into  great  prom- 
inence ;  but  attempting  to  make  conquests  in  Europe,  and  further 
giving  asylum  to  the  Carthaginian  general  Hannibal,  he  incurred 
the  fatal  hostility  of  Rome.  Quickly  driven  by  the  Roman  legions 
across  the  Hellespont,  he  was  hopelessly  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Magnesia  (190  B.C.),  and  a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Romans,  who  gave  the  most  of  it  to  their  friend  and 
ally  Eumenes  H.,  king  of  Pergamus  (see  note  below).  After  the 
batde  of  Magnesia  the  Syrian  kingdom  was  of  very  little  impor- 
tance in  the  world's  affairs. 

Antiochus  IV.,  Epiphanes  (176-164  B.C.),  by  the  pillage  and 
desecration  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  drove  the  Jews  to  success- 
ful revolt,  under  the  lead  of  the  heroic  Maccabees,  which  event 
has  already  been  noticed  in  the  history  of  the  Jewish  people  (see 
p.  116).  Others  kept  the  kingdom  in  constant  contention  with 
the  states  of  Asia  Minor  on  the  west,  with  the  Bactrians  and  Par- 
thians  on  the  east,  and  with  Egypt  on  the  south.  At  last,  brought 
again  into  collision  with  Rome,  the  country  was  overrun  by  Pompey 
the  Great,  and  became  a  part  of  the  Roman  Repubhc,  (i2i  ^-C- 

1  The  most  important  of  these  were  the  following :  — 

1.  Pergamus.  —  This  was  a  state  in  Western  Asia  Minor,  which  became 
independent  upon  the  death  of  Seleucus  Nicator  (280  B.C.).  Favored  by  the 
Romans,  it  gradually  grew  into  a  powerful  kingdom,  which  at  the  time  of 
Eumenes  II.  (197-159  B.C.)  embraced  a  considerable  part  of  Asia  Minor.  Its 
capital,  also  called  Pergamus,  became  a  most  noted  centre  of  Greek  learning 
and  civilization,  and  through  its  great  library  and  university  gained  the  renown 
of  being,  next  to  Alexandria  in  Eg>'pt,  the  greatest  city  of  the  Hellenistic 
world.  In  133  B.C.  Attalus  III.,  after  killing  all  his  heirs,  ended  a  life  which 
was  a  perfect  tissue  of  follies  by  bequeathing  his  kingdom  to  the  Roman 
people,  who  immediately  took  steps  to  secure  the  prize,  and  made  it  into  a 
province  under  the  name  of  Asia. 

2.  Parthia.  —  Parthia  was  a  powerful  Turanian  state  that  grew  up  east  of 
the  Euphrates,  in  the  lands  that  formed  the  heart  and  centre  of  the  old  Persian 
Empire  (from  about  255  B.C.  to  226  A.D.).  Its  kings  were  at  first  formidable 
enemies  of  the  rulers  of  Syria,  and  later  of  the  Romans,  whom  they  never 
allowed  to  make  any  considerable  conquest  beyond  the  Euphrates. 


KINGDOM   OF   THE  PTOLEMIES  IN  EGYPT.  277 

Kingdom  of  the  Ptolemies  in  Egypt  (323-30  e.g.).  —  The 
Gr^co- Egyptian  empire  of  the  Ptolemies  was  by  far  the  most 
important,  in  its  influence  upon  the  civilization  of  the  world, 
of  all  the  kingdoms  that  owed  their  origin  to  the  conquests  of 
Alexander.  The  founder  of  the  house  and  dynasty  was  Ptolemy  I., 
surnamed  Soter^  (323-283  B.C.).  His  descendants  ruled  in  Egypt 
for  nearly  three  centuries,  a  most  important  period  in  the  intellec- 
tual hfe  of  the  world.  Ptolemy  was  a  general  under  Alexander, 
and  seemed  to  possess  much  of  his  ability  and  restless  energy, 
with  a  happy  freedom  from  his  great  commander's  faults. 

Upon  the  partition  of  the  empire  of  Alexander,  Ptolemy  received 
Egypt,  with  parts  of  Arabia  and  Libya.  To  these  he  added  by 
conquest  Coele-Syria,  Phoenicia,  Palestine,  Gyrene,  and  Gyprus. 
Following  the  usage  of  the  time,  he  transported  one  hundred 
thousand  Jews  from  Jerusalem  to  Alexandria,  attached  them  to  his 
person  and  policies  by  wise  and  conciliatory  measures,  and  thus 
effected  at  this  great  capital  of  the  Nile  that  blending  of  the  races 
of  the  East  and  the  West  which  was  the  dream  of  Alexander. 

The  possession  of  the  forests  of  Mount  Lebanon,  and  the  com- 
mand of  the  artisans  of  Phcenicia,  enabled  Ptolemy  to  reahze  his 
plans  of  making  Egypt  a  naval  power,  and  the  emporium  of  the 
carrying  trade  between  Asia  and  Europe.  Alexandria  became  the 
great  depot  of  exchange  for  the  productions  of  the  world.  At  the 
entrance  of  the  harbor  stood  the  Pharos,  or  light-house,  —  the  first 
structure  of  its  kind,  —  which  Ptolemy  built  to  guide  the  fleets  of 
the  world  to  his  capital.  This  edifice  was  reckoned  one  of  the 
Seven  Wonders. 

But  it  was  not  alone  the  exchange  of  material  products  that  was 
comprehended  in  Ptolemy's  scheme.  His  aim  was  to  make  his 
capital  the  intellectual  centre  of  the  world  —  the  place  where  the 
arts,  sciences,  literatures,  and  even  the  religions,  of  the  world  should 
meet  and  mingle.  He  founded  the  famous  Museum,  a  sort  of  col- 
lege, which  became  the  "University  of  the  East,"  and  established 

1  That  is,  deliverer,  a  name  given  him  by  the  Rhodians  in  gratitude  for 
military  aid  that  he  rendered  them. 


278      STATES  FORMED   FROM  ALEXANDER'S  EMPIRE. 

the  renowned  Alexandrian  Library.  Poets,  artists,  philosophers, 
and  teachers  in  all  departments  of  learning  were  encouraged  to 
settle  in  Alexandria  by  the  conferring  of  immunities  and  privileges, 
and  by  gifts  and  munificent  patronage.  His  court  embraced  the 
learning  and  genius  of  the  age. 

Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (283-247  B.C.)  followed  closely  in  the 
footsteps  of  his  father,  carrying  out,  as  far  as  possible,  the  plans 
and  policies  of  the  preceding  reign.  To  secure  Egypt's  com- 
mercial supremacy,  the  old  Pharaonic  canal  uniting  the  Nile  and 
the  Red  Sea  was  restored,  and  roads  were  constructed  to  facilitate 
the  transportation  of  merchandise  f^om  the  ports  on  that  sea  to  the 
river.  Philadelphus  added  largely  to  the  royal  library,  and  ex- 
tended to  scholars  the  same  liberal  patronage  that  his  father  had 
before  him. 

The  surname  Philadelphus  (brother-lover)  was  given  this  Ptol- 
emy on  account  of  his  tender  devotion  to  his  wife  Arsinoe,  who 
was  also  his  sister.  This  usage  of  intermarriage  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  royal  family  —  a  usage  in  which  the  Ptolemies  followed 
what  was  a  custom  of  the  ancient  Pharaohs  —  was  one  of  the 
causes  of  the  contentions  and  calamities  which  at  last  overwhelmed 
the  house  with  woes  and  infamy. 

Ptolemy  III.  (247-222  B.C.)  was  called  by  the  Egyptians  Euer- 
getes  (benefactor),  because  in  one  of  his  wars — a  war  against  the 
king  of  Syria,  which  led  him  beyond  the  Euphrates  —  he  recap- 
tured and  placed  again  in  their  temples  some  statues  of  the  Egyp- 
tian gods  which  the  Persian  conqueror  Cambyses  and  the  Assyrian 
Sargon  had  borne  away  as  trophies.  He  was  possessed  of  great 
military  genius,  and  under  him  the  dominions  of  the  Ptolemies 
touched  their  widest  limits ;  while  the  capital  Alexandria  reached 
the  culminating  point  in  her  fame  as  the  centre  of  Greek  civiHza- 
tion. 

Altogether  the  Ptolemies  reigned  in  Egypt  almost  exactly  three 
centuries  (323-30  B.C.).  Those  rulers  who  held  the  throne  for  the 
last  two  hundred  years  were,  with  few  exceptions,  a  succession  of 
monsters,  such  as  even  Rome  in  her  worst  days  could  scarcely 


MACEDONIA    AND    GREECE.  219 

equal.  These  monarchs  plunged  into  the  most  despicable  ex- 
cesses, and  were  guilty  of  every  folly  and  cruelty.  The  usage  of 
intermarriage,  already  mentioned,  led  to  endless  family  quarrels, 
which  resulted  in  fratricide,  matricide,  and  all  the  dark  deeds 
included  in  the  calendar  of  royal  crime.  The  story  of  the  re- 
nowned Cleopatra,  the  last  of  the  house  of  the  Ptolemies,  will  be 
told  in  connection  with  Roman  history,  to  which  it  properly 
belongs. 

Macedonia  and  Greece.  —  From  the  time  of  the  subjection  of 
Greece  by  Philip  and  Alexander  to  the  absorption  of  Macedonia 
into  the  growing  dominions  of  Rome,  the  Greek  cities  of  the 
peninsula  were  very  much  under  the  control  or  influence  of  the 
Macedonian  kings.  But  the  Greeks  were  never  made  for  royal 
subjects,  and  consequently  they  were  in  a  state  of  chronic  revolt 
against  this  foreign  authority. 

Thus,  no  sooner  had  they  heard  of  the  death  of  Alexander  than 
several  of  the  Grecian  states  arose  against  the  Macedonian  general 
Antipater,  and  carried  on  with  him  what  is  known  as  the  Lamian 
War^  (323-321  B.C.).  The  struggle  ended  disastrously  for  the 
Greeks,  and  Demosthenes,  who  had  been  the  soul  of  the  move- 
ment, was  forced  to  flee  from  Athens.  He  took  refuge  upon  an 
island  just  off  the  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus  ;  but  being  still  hunted 
by  Antipater,  he  put  an  end  to  his  own  life  by  means  of  poison. 

The  next  matter  of  moment  in  the  history  of  Macedonia  was  an 
invasion  of  the  Gauls  (Celtic  tribes  from  Scythia),  under  the  lead 
of  Brennus  (279  B.C.).  Both  Macedonia  and  Greece  suffered 
terribly  from  these  savage  marauders.  Being  driven  from  Europe, 
the  barbarians  finally  settled  in  Asia  Minor,  and  there  gave  name 
to  the  province  of  Galatia. 

Macedonia  now  comes  in  contact  with  a  new  enemy  —  the  great 
mihtary  repubhc  of  the  West.  For  lending  aid  to  Carthage  in  the 
second  Punic  War,  she  incurred  the  anger  of  Rome,  which  resulted, 
after  much  intrigue  and  hard  fighting,  in  the  country's  being  brought 

1  From  the  city  uf  Lamia  in  Thessaly,  where  Antipater  was  besieged  by  the 
Greeks. 


280       STATES  FORMED  FROM  ALEXANDER'S  EMPIRE, 

into  subjection  to  the  Italian  power.  In  the  year  146  B.C.  it  was 
erected  into  a  Roman  province. 

The  political  affairs  of  Greece  proper  during  the  period  we  are 
considering  were  chiefly  comprehended  in  the  fortunes  of  two 
confederacies,  or  leagues,  one  of  which,  called  the  Achaean  League, 
embraced  finally  all  the  states  of  the  Peloponnesus,^  as  well  as 
some  cities  outside  its  limits ;  while  the  other,  known  as  the  MXo- 
lian  League,  comprised  many  of  the  states  north  of  the  Corinthian 
Gulf.2 

United,  these  two  confederacies  might  have  maintained  the 
political  independence  of  (jreece  ;  but  that  spirit  of  dissension 
which  we  have  seen  to  be  the  bane  of  the  Hellenic  peoples  led 
them  to  become,  in  the  hands  of  intriguing  Rome,  weapons  first 
for  crushing  Macedonia,  and  then  for  grinding  each  other  to 
pieces. 

Soon  after  the  conquest  of  Macedonia,  the  ^tolians  were  made 
tributary  to  Rome.  At  the  same  time,  a  thousand  of  the  leading 
citizens  of  the  cities  of  the  i\chaean  League  were,  on  the  pretext 
of  their  conspiring  against  Rome,  transported  to  Italy,  and  for 
seventeen  years  kept  as  political  prisoners  in  the  different  cities  of 
Etruria.  At  the  end  of  that  time  the  surviving  exiles  were  allowed 
to  return  home,  the  perfidious  Romans  foreseeing  and  hoping  that 
their  desire  for  revenge  would  betray  them  into  some  violent  act 
which  would  afford  Rome  a  pretext  for  invading  and  confiscating 
their  territory.  All  fell  out  as  anticipated.  The  exiles  were  no 
sooner  returned  to  their  native  land  than  they  stirred  up  their 
countrymen  to  revolt  against  Rome.  Corinth,  which,  since  the 
Peloponnesian  War  had  ruined  Athens,  was  the  most  splendid  city 

1  Sparta  was  not  a  member  of  the  League  at  first,  but  its  jealous  and  bitter 
enemy.  The  Spartan  king  Cleomenes  waged  with  the  confederated  states 
what  is  known  as  the  Cleomenic  War  (224-221  B.C.).  The  League  sought 
and  obtained  aid  of  Macedonia,  and  Sparta  was  defeated. 

2  For  a  study  of  these  confederations,  which  were  very  much  like  our  own 
federal  union,  consult  Freeman's  valuable  work  entitled  History  of  Federal 
Constitutions. 


RE  VIE  W.  281 

of  all  Greece,  was  taken  by  the  Roman  army  and  laid  in  ashes 
(146  B.C.).  This  was  the  last  act  in  the  long  and  varied  drama  of 
the  political  life  of  ancient  Greece.  Henceforth  it  constituted 
simply  a  portion  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

Review.  —  We  have  now  traced  the  political  fortunes  of  the 
Hellenic  race  through  about  seven  centuries  of  authentic  history. 
Starting  with  the  institutions  of  the  primitive  Greek  communities, 
we  have  followed  the  early  growth  of  the  leading  Grecian  states, 
and  have  watched  their  memorable  struggle  with  the  power  of  the 
Persian  kings ;  we  have  noticed  the  brilliant  era  of  Athenian 
supremacy  which  followed  that  contest ;  we  have  seen  the  terri- 
ble calamities  finally  brought  by  the  mutual  jealousies  of  the  two 
rival  states  of  Athens  and  Sparta,  not  only  upon  themselves,  but 
upon  all  Hellas ;  then,  after  brief  periods  of  Spartan  and  Theban 
supremacy,  we  have  seen  Macedonia  assume  the  leadership  of 
the  Greek  race,  unite  half  the  world  in  a  single  kingdom  under 
an  Alexander,  and  spread  Hellenic  ideas,  institutions,  and  lan- 
guage from  Italy  to  the  regions  beyond  the  Indus ;  we  have  also 
seen  this  enormous  Macedonian  empire,  through  the  rivalries  of 
ambitious  generals  and  through  lack  of  that  capacity  to  unite  for 
political  ends  which  was  the  fatal  defect  of  the  Greek  character, 
torn  into  pieces,  and  these  fragments,  after  more  or  less  varied 
political  fortunes,  seized  upon  one  after  another  by  the  rapacity  of 
Rome. 

In  succeeding  chapters  it  will  be  our  pleasanter  task  to  trace  the 
more  brilliant  and  worthy  fortunes  of  the  artistic  and  intellectual 
life  of  Hellas  :  to  portray,  though  necessarily  in  scanty  outline,  the 
achievements  of  that  wonderful  genius  which  enabled  her,  "  cap- 
tured, to  lead  captive  her  captor." 


282       STATES  FORMED   FROM  ALEXANDER'S  EMPIRE. 


RULERS  OF  THE  KINGDOM  OF  THE  SELEUCID^. 

B.C. 

Seleucus  I.,  Nicator,  founder  of  the  kingdom 312-281 

Antiochus  I.,  Soter 281-261 

Antiochus  II.,  Theos 261-246 

Seleucus  II •     .  246-226 

Seleucus  III.,  Ceraunus 226-223 

Antiochus  III.,  the  Great .  223-187 

Seleucus  IV.,  Philopator 187-176 

Antiochus  IV.,  Epiphanes  (revolt  of  the  Jews  under  Judas  Macca- 
beus)      176-164 

Antiochus  v.,  Eupator 164-162 

Several  obscure  names 162-69 

Antiochus  VIII. ,  last  of  the  Seleucida; 69-65 


RULERS    OF    THE    GR.^CO-EGYPTIAN    KINGDOM    OF  THE 

PTOLEMIES. 

B.C. 

Ptolemy  I.,  Soter 323-283 

Ptolemy  II.,  Philadelphus 283-247 

Ptolemy  III.,  Euergetes 247-222 

Ptolemy  IV 222-205 

Ptolemy  V 205-181 

Ptolemy  VI •  181-146 

Several  obscure  names 146-51 

Cleopatra,  last  of  the  line        : 51-3° 

Egypt  becomes  a  part  of  the  Roman  Empire 30 


THE    GREEK  SENSE    OF  BEAUTY,  283 


CHAPTER    X. 

GREEK  ARCHITECTURE,  SCULPTURE,   AND    PAINTING. 
I.    Introductory. 

The  Greek  Sense  of  Beauty.  —  The  Greeks  were  artists  by 
nature.  They  possessed  an  organization  that  was  most  exquisitely 
sensitive  to  impressions  of  the  beautiful.  As  it  has  been  expressed, 
"  ugliness  gave  them  pain  like  a  blow."  Everything  they  made, 
from  the  shrines  for  their  gods  to  the  meanest  utensils  of  domestic 
use,  was  beautiful.  Beauty  they  placed  next  to  holiness ;  indeed, 
they  almost  or  quite  made  beauty  and  moral  right  the  same  thing. 
It  is  said  that  it  was  noted  by  the  Greeks  as  something  strange  and 
exceptional  that  Socrates  was  good,  notwithstanding  he  was  ugly 
in  feature. 

The  first  maxim  in  Greek  art  was  the  same  as  that  which  formed 
the  first  principle  in  Greek  morality  —  "  Nothing  in  excess."  The 
Greek  eye  was  offended  at  any  exaggeration  of  parts,  at  any  lack 
of  symmetry  or  proportion  in  an  object.  The  proportions  of  the 
Greek  temple  are  perfect.  Any  deviations  from  the  measurements 
or  canons  of  the  Greek  artists  are  found  to  be  departures  from  the 
ideal. 

Clearness  of  outline  was  another  requirement  of  Greek  taste. 
The  artistic  Greek  had  a  positive  dislike  of  all  vagueness  or  indis- 
tinctness of  form.  Contrast  the  clear-cut  lines  of  a  Greek  temple 
with  the  vague,  ever-vanishing  lines  of  a  Mediaeval  Gothic  cathe- 
dral. 

It  is  possible  that  Nature  herself  taught  the  Greeks  these  first 
principles  of  their  art.  Nature  in  Greece  never  goes  to  extremes. 
The  Grecian  mountains  and  islands  are  never  over-large.  The 
climate    is   never   excessively  cold   nor   oppressively   hot.      And 


284 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE.   ETC. 


Nature  here  seems  to  abhor  vagueness.  The  singular  transpar- 
ency of  the  atmosphere,  especially  that  of  Attica,  lends  a  remark- 
able clearness  of  outline  to  every  object.  The  Parthenon  in  its 
clear-cut  features  seems  modelled  after  the  hills  that  lie  with  such 
absolute  clearness  of  form  against  the  Attic  sky. 

II.    Architecture. 

Pelasgian  Architecture.  —  The  term  Pelasgian  is  applied  to 
various  structures  of  massive  masonry  —  walls,  tombs,  and  subter- 
ranean aqueducts  —  found  in  different  parts  of  Greece,  Italy,  and 
Asia  Minor.  The  origin  of  these  works  was  a  mystery  to  the 
earliest  Hellenes,  who  ascribed  them  to  the  giant  Cyclops ;  hence 
the  name  Cyclopean  that  also  attaches  to  them. 

These  works  exhibit  three  well-defined  stages  of  development. 
In  the  earliest  and  rudest  structures  the  stones  are  gigantic  in  size 
and  untouched  by  the  chisel ;  in  the  next  oldest  the  stones  are 


worked  into  irregular  polygonal  blocks ;  while  in  the  latest  the 
blocks  are  cut  into  rectangular  shapes  and  laid  in  regular  courses. 
The  walls  of  the  old  citadels  or  castles  of  several  Grecian  cities 
exhibit  specimens  of  this  primitive  architecture.  The  celebrated 
so-called  Treasury  of  Atreus,  a  subterranean  vaulted  structure  at 


FIRST   GRECIAN   TEMPLES. 


285 


Mycenae,  is  a  noted  example  of  the  latest  form  of  Pelasgian  art. 
The  best  specimen  of  the  oldest  form  is  found  at  Tiryns,  near 
Mycenae. 

First  Grecian  Temples.  —  In  the  earliest  times  the  Greeks  had 
no  temples,  save  the  forests.  The  statues  of  the  gods  were  first 
placed  beneath  the  shelter  of  a  tree,  or  within  its  hollow  trunk. 
After  a  time,  a  building  rudely  constructed  of  the  trunks  of  trees 
and  shaped  like  the  habitations  of  men,  marked  the  first  step  in 
advance.  Then  stone  took  the  place  of  the  wooden  frame.  With 
the  introduction  of  a  durable  material,  the  artist  was  encouraged 
to  expend  more  labor  and  care  upon  his  work.  Thus  architecture 
began  to  make  rapid  strides,  and  by  the  century  following  the  age 
of  Solon  at  Athens  there  were  many  beautiful  temples  in  different 
parts  of  the  Hellenic  world. 

Orders  of  Architecture.  —  Before  speaking  of  the  most  noted 
temples  of  Hellas,  we  must  first  name  the  three  styles,  or  orders. 


DORIC    CAPITAL. 


IONIC    CAPITAL. 


of  Grecian  architecture.  These  are  the  Doric,  the  Ionic,  and  the 
Corinthian.  They  are  distinguished  from  one  another  chiefly  by 
differences  in  the  proportions  and  ornamentation  of  the  column. 

The  Doric  column  is  without  a  base,  and  has  a  simple  and  mas- 
sive capital.  The  prototype  of  this  order  may  be  seen  at  Beni- 
Hassan,  in  Egypt.  At  first  the  Doric  temples  of  the  Greeks  were 
almost  as  massive  as  the  Egyptian  temples,  but  later  they  became 
more  refined. 


286 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE,    ETC. 


The  Ionic  column  is  characterized  by  the  spiral  volutes  of  the 
capital.  This  form  was  borrowed  from  the  Assyrians,  and  was 
principally  employed  by  the  Greeks  of  Ionia,  whence  its  name. 

The  Corinthian  order  is  distinguished  by  its  rich  capital,  formed 
of  acanthus  leaves.  This  type  is  made  up  of  Egyptian,  Assyrian, 
and  Grecian  elements.  The  bell  shape  of  the  capital  is  in  imita- 
tion of  the  Egyptian  style.  The  addition  of  the  acanthus  leaves  is 
said  to  have  been  suggested  to  the  artist  Callimachus  by  the  pretty 

effect  of  a  basket  surrounded 
by  the  leaves  of  an  acanthus 
plant,  upon  which  it  had  ac- 
cidentally fallen.  This  order 
was  not  much  employed  in 
Greece  before  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great. 

The  entire  structure  was 
made  to  harmonize  with  its 
supporting  columns.  The 
general  characteristics  of  the 
several  orders  are  well  por- 
trayed by  the  terms  we  use 
when  we  speak  of  the  "  stern  " 
Doric,  the  "  graceful  "  Ionic, 
and  the  "ornate  "  Corinthian. 
Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  —  The  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephe- 
sus  was  one  of  the  oldest,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  famous,  of  the 
sacred  edifices  of  the  Greeks.  The  original  structure  was  com- 
menced about  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  and,  accord- 
ing to  Pliny,  was  one  hundred  and  twenty  years  in  process  of 
building.  Croesus  gave  liberally  of  his  wealth  to  ornament  the 
shrine.  It  was  known  far  and  wide  as  one  of  the  Seven  Wonders 
of  the  World. 

In  the  year  356  B.C.,  on  the  same  night,  it  is  said,  that  Alexan- 
der was  born,  an  ambitious  youth,  named  Herostratus,  fired  the 
building,  simply  to  immortalize  his  name.     The  roof  of  the  struc- 


CORINTHIAN    CAPITAL. 


TEMPLE    OF  DIANA   AT  EPHESUS.  287 

ture  was  of  cedar,  and  this,  probably,  was  the  only  part  destroyed. 
It  was  restored  with  even  greater  splendor  than  at  first.  Alexander 
coveted  the  honor  of  rebuilding  the  temple,  and  proposed  to  the 
Ephesians  to  do  so,  provided  that  he  be  allowed  to  inscribe  his 
name  upon  it.  The  Ephesians  gracefully  declined  the  proposal  by 
replying  that  it  was  not  right  for  one  deity  to  erect  a  temple  to 
another.^  Alexander  was  obliged  to  content  himself  with  placing 
within  the  shrine  his  own  portrait  by  Apelles  —  a  piece  of  work 
which  cost  $30,000.  The  value  of  the  gifts  to  the  temple  was 
beyond  all  calculation  :  kings  and  states  vied  with  one  another  in 
splendid  donations.  Painters  and  sculptors  were  eager  to  have 
their  masterpieces  assigned  a  place  within  its  walls,  so  that  it 
became  a  great  national  gallery  of  paintings  and  statuary. 

So  inviolable  was  the  sanctity  of  the  temple  that  at  all  times,  and 
especially  in  times  of  tumult  and-  danger,  property  and  treasures 
were  carried  to  it  as  a  safe  repository.^  But  the  riches  of  the 
sanctuary  proved  too  great  a  temptation  to  the  Roman  emperor 

1  Alexander,  it  appears,  made  a  similar  offer  to  the  priests  of  the  temple  of 
Athena  Polias  at  Priene,  a  city  of  Caria,  for  a  tablet  has  been  found  upon 
which  Alexander's  name  is  engraved  as  dedicator.  The  slab  may  be  seen  in 
the  British  Museum. 

2  The  Grecian  temples  were,  in  a  certain  sense,  banks  of  deposit.  They  con- 
tained special  chambers  or  vaults  for  the  safe-keeping  of  valuables.  The 
heaps  of  gold  and  silver  relics  discovered  by  Di  Cesnola  at  Sunium,  in  the 
island  of  Cyprus,  were  found  in  the  secret  subterranean  vaults  of  a  great  tem- 
ple. The  priests  often  loaned  out  on  interest  the  money  deposited  with  them> 
the  revenue  from  this  source  being  added  to  that  from  the  leased  lands  of  the 
temple  and  from  the  tithes  of  war  booty,  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  services 
of  the  shrine.  We  may  liken  the  wealth  of  the  ancient  temples  to  that  of  the 
Mediaeval  churches.  "The  gods  were  the  wealthiest  capitalists."  Usually 
the  temple  property  in  Greece  was  managed  solely  by  the  priests;  but  the 
treasure  of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens  formed  an  exception  to  this  rule.  The 
treasure  here  belonged  to  the  State,  and  was  controlled  and  disposed  of  by  the 
vote  of  the  people.  Even  the  personal  property  of  the  goddess,  the  gold  dra- 
pery of  the  statue  (see  p.  296),  which  was  worth  about  ^600,000,  could  be 
used  in  case  of  great  need,  but  it  must  be  replaced  in  due  time,  with  a  fait 
interest. 


288  GREEK  ARCHITECTURE,   ETC. 

Nero.  He  risked  incurring  the  anger  of  the  great  Diana,  and 
robbed  the  temple  of  many  statues  and  a  vast  amount  of  gold. 
Later  (in  262  a.d.),  the  barbarian  Goths  enriched  themselves  with 
the  spoils  of  the  shrine.  The  temple  itself  fared  but  little  better 
than  the  treasures  it  guarded.  The  Goths  left  it  a  ruin ;  and  long 
after,  some  of  the  celebrated  jasper  columns  were,  by  order  of  the 
emperor  Justinian,  carried  to  Byzantium,  and  there  at  this  day 
uphold  the  dome  of  St.  Sophia,  once  the  most  noted  church,  now 
the  most  famous  mosque,  in  all  the  East.  Other  columns  from  this 
ruin  were  taken  to  Italy  and  built  into  Christian  churches  there.^ 

The  Delphian  Temple. — The  first  temple  erected  at  Delphi 
over  the  spot  whence  issued  the  mysterious  vapors  was  a  rude 
wooden  structure.  In  the  year  548  B.C.,  the  temple  then  standing 
was  destroyed  by  fire.  All  the  cities  and  states  of  Hellas  con- 
tributed to  its  rebuilding.  Even  the  king  of  Egypt,  Amasis,  sent 
a  munificent  gift.  More  than  half  a  million  of  dollars  was  col- 
lected ;  for  the  temple  was  to  exceed  in  magnificence  anything 
the  world  had  yet  seen.  It  will  be  recalled  that  the  Athenian 
Alcmaeonidae  were  the  contractors  who  undertook  the  rebuilding 
of  the  shrine  (see  p.  205). 

The  structure  was  impressive  both  in  its  colossal  size  and  the 
massive  simplicity  that  characterizes  the  Doric  style  of  architec- 
ture. It  was  crowded  with  the  spoils  of  many  battle-fields,  with 
the  rich  gifts  of  kings,  and  with  rare  works  of  art.  Like  the  temple 
at  Ephesus,  the  Delphian  shrine,  after  remaining  for  many  years 
secure,  through  the  awe  and  reverence  which  its  oracle  inspired,, 
suffered  frequent  spoliation.  The  greed  of  conquerors  overcame, 
all  religious  scruples.  The  Phocians  robbed  the  temple  of  a  treas- 
ure equivalent,  it  is  estimated,  to  more  than  $  10,000,000  with  us 
(see  p.  260)  ;  and  Nero  plundered  it  of  five  hundred  bronze 
images.  But  Constantine  (emperor  of  Rome  306-337  a.d.,  and 
founder  of  Constantinople)  was  the  Nebuchadnezzar  who  bore  off 

1  The  site  of  the  temple  was  for  many  centuries  lost;  but  in  187 1,  Mr.  Wood, 
an  excavator,  uncovered  portions  of  its  ancient  pavement,  and  brought  to  light 
fragments  of  sculpture,  which  may  now  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum. 


THE   ATHENIAN  ACROPOLIS.  289 

the  sacred  vessels  and  many  statues  as  trophies  to  his  new  capital 
then  rising  on  the  Hellespont. 

The  Athenian  Acropolis  and  the  Parthenon.  —  In  the  history 
of  art  there  is  no  other  spot  in  the  world  possessed  of  such  interest 
as  the  flat-topped  rock,  already  described,  which  constituted  the 
Athenian  Acropolis.  We  have  seen  that  in  early  times  the  emi- 
nence was  used  as  a  stronghold.  But  by  the  fifth  century  B.C.  the 
city  had  slipped  down  upon  the  plain,  and  the  summit  of  the  rock 
was  consecrated  to  the  temples  and  the  worship  of  the  deities,  and 
came  to  be  called  "  the  city  of  the  gods."  During  the  period  of 
Athenian   supremacy,  especially  in    the    Periclean  Age,  Hellenic 


ATHENIAN    YOUTH    IN    PROCESSION.       (F^om  the   Frieze  of  the  Parthenon.) 

genius  and  piety  adorned  this  spot  with  temples  and  statues  that 
all  the  world  has  pronounced  to  be  faultless  specimens  of  beauty 
and  taste. 

The  most  celebrated  of  the  buildings  upon  the  Acropolis  was  the 
Parthenon,  the  ''Residence  of  the  virgin-goddess  Athena."  This 
is  considered  the  finest  specimen  of  Greek  architecture.  It  was 
designed  by  the  architect  Ictinus,  but  the  sculptures  that  adorned 
it  were  the  work  of  the  celebrated  Phidias.^     It  was  built  in  the 

^  The  subject  of  the  wonderful  frieze  running  round  the  temple  was  the  pro- 
cession which  formed  the  most  important  feature  of  the  Athenian  festival 
known  as  the  Greater  Panathenaea,  which  was  celebrated  every  four  vears  in 


29C 


THE   MAUSOLEUM  AT  HALICARNASSUS. 


291 


Doric  order,  of  marble  from  the  neighboring  Pentehcus.  After 
standing  for  more  than  two  thousand  years,  and  having  served 
successively  as  a  Pagan  temple,  a  Christian  church,  and  a  Moham- 
medan mosque,  it  finally  was  made  to  serve  as  a  Turkish  powder- 
magazine,  in  a  war  with  the  Venetians,  in  1687.  During  the 
progress  of  this  contest  a  bomb  fired  the  magazine,  and  more  than 
half  of  this  masterpiece  of  ancient  art  was  shivered  into  fragments. 
The  front  is  still  quite  perfect,  and  is  the  most  prominent  feature 
of  the  Acropolis  at  the  present  time. 


THE    PARTHENON     (present  condition;. 


The  Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus. — This  structure  was  another 
of  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  World.  It  w^as  a  monumental  tomb 
designed  to  preserve  the  memory  of  Mausolus,  king  of  Caria,  who 
died  352  B.C.  Its  erection  w-as  prompted  by  the  love  and  grief  of 
his  wife  Artemisia.  The  combined  genius  of  the  most  noted  artists 
of  the  age,  among  whom  was  the  reno\vned  sculptor  Scopas,  exe- 

honor  of  the  patron-goddess  of  Athens.  The  larger  part  of  the  frieze  is  now 
in  the  British  Museum,  the  Parthenon  having  been  despoiled  of  its  coronal  of 
sculptures  by  Lord  Elgin.  Read  Lord  Byron's  The  Ctirse  of  Minerva.  To 
the  poet,  Lord  Elgin's  act  appeared  worse  than  vandalism. 


THEATRES  AND    OTHER   STRUCTURES. 


293 


cuted  the  wish  of  the  queen.     From  a  base  about  one  hundred 

feet  square  the  monument  rose 

to  a  height  of  one  hundred  and 

forty  feet.     Its  sides  were  deco- 
rated with  a  multitude  of  statues 

and  figures  in  rehef ;  while  sur- 
mounting   the    monument    was 

the  statue  of  Mausolus,  standing 

in   a  marble  chariot   drawn  by 

four  horses. 

The    chief    remains    of    the 

Mausoleum  are  numerous  sculpt- 
ures dug   up  on    the   site,  and 

now   preserved    in    the    British 

Museum.     These  assure  us  that 

the  admiration  of  the  ancients 

was  not  accorded  to  this  work 

without  sufficient  reason.     It  is 

the  traditions   of  this  beautiful 

structure   that    have    given    the 

world  a  name  for  all  magnificent 

monuments  raised  to  perpetuate 
the  memory  of  the  dead. 

Theatres  and  Other  Struc- 
tures. —  The  Greek  theatre  was 
semi-circular  in  form,  and  open 
to  the  sky,  as  shown  in  the 
accompanying  cut.  The  struc- 
ture comprised  three  divisions  : 
first,  the  semi-circle  of  seats  for 
the  spectators  ;  second,  the  or- 
chestra, or  dancing-place  for  the 
chorus,   which     embraced     the 

,      ,  .11  CHORAGIC  MONUMENT  OF    LYSICRATES. 

space  between  the  lower  range 

of  seats  and  the  stage  ;  and  third,  the  stage,  a  narrow  platform 

for  the  actors. 


294  GREEK  ARCHITECTURE,   ETC. 

The  most  noted  of  Greek  theatres  was  the  Theatre  of  Dionysus 
at  Athens,  which  was  the  model  of  all  the  others.  It  was  partly 
cut  in  the  rock  on  the  southeastern  slope  of  the  Acropolis,  the 
Greeks  in  the  construction  of  their  theatres  generally  taking  advan- 
tage of  a  hillside.  There  were  about  one  hundred  rows  of  seats, 
the  lowest  one,  bordering  the  orchestra,  consisting  of  sixty-seven 
marble  arm-chairs.  These  were  brought  to  light  by  excavations 
made  in  the  year  1862.  The  structure  would  hold  thirty  thousand 
spectators. 

Among  commemorative  edifices  raised  in  honor  of  the  living, 
the  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  at  Athens,  known  also  as 
the  Lantern  of  Diogenes,  is  regarded  as  the  most  beautiful.  The 
structure  is  only  thirty-four  feet  high.  It  is  of  the  Corinthian 
order  of  architecture,  and  was  intended  to  commemorate  the 
victory  won  in  334  B.C.  by  Lysicrates,  the  leader  (Choragus)  of  a 
chorus  (see  p.  352). 

There  are  no  specimens  preserved  to  us  of  the  domestic  or 
palatial  architecture  of  the  Greeks. 


III.    Sculpture  and  Painting. 

Progress  in  Sculpture :  Influence  of  the  Gymnastic  Art. — The 

subjects  of  the  Grecian  artists  were  usually  taken  from  the  sacred 
myths  and  legends.  Wood  was  the  material  first  employed. 
About  the  eighth  century  B.C.  bronze  and  marble  were  generally 
substituted  for  the  less  durable  material.  With  this  change 
sculpture  began  to  make  rapid  progress. 

Another  circumstance  aided  the  development  of  the  art.  It 
became  usual  to  commemorate  victories  at  the  national  games 
by  statues  of  the  victor.  The  grounds  about  the  temple  at  Olym- 
pia  became  crowded  with  "  a  band  of  chosen  youth  in  imperishable 
forms."  Now,  in  representing  the  figures  of  the  gods,  it  was 
thought,  if  not  impious,  at  least  presumptuous;  to  change  a  single 
line  or  lineament  of  the  conventional  form ;    and  thus  a  certain 


PROGRESS  IN  SCULPTURE. 


295 


Egyptian  rigidity  was  imparted  to  all  the  productions  of  the 
artist.  Any  material  change  subjected  him  to  the  charge  of  sacri- 
lege. But  in  the  representation  of  the  forms  of  mere  men,  the 
sculptor  was  bound  by  no  conventionalism,  being  perfectly  free  to 
exercise  his  skill  and   genius    in  ^ 

handling  his  subject.  Progress 
and  improvement  now  became 
possible. 

But  what  exerted  the  most 
positive  influence  upon  Greek 
sculpture  was  the  gymnastic  art. 
The  exercises  of  the  gymnasium 
and  the  contests  of  the  sacred 
games  afforded  the  artist  unri- 
valled opportunities  for  the  study 
of  the  human  form.  "The  whole 
race,"  as  Symonds  says,  "  lived 
out  its  sculpture  and  its  painting, 
rehearsed,  as  it  were,  the  great 
works  of  Phidias  and  Polygnotus, 
in  physical  exercises,  before  it 
learned  to  express  itself  in  marble 
or  in  color." 

As  the  sacred  buildings  in- 
creased in  number  and  costliness, 
the  services  of  the  artist  were 
called   into  requisition   for    their 

adornment.  At  first  the  temple  held  only  the  statue  of  the  god  ;  but 
after  a  time  it  became,  as  we  have  already  seen,  a  sort  of  national 
museum  —  a  repository  of  the  artistic  treasures  of  the  state.  The 
entablature,  the  pediments,  the  intercolumniations  of  the  building, 
and  every  niche  of  the  interior  of  the  shrine,  as  well  as  the  sur- 
rounding grounds  and  groves,  were  peopled  with  statues  and 
groups  of  figures,  executed  by  the  most  renowned  artists,  and 
representing  the  national  deities,  the  legendary  heroes,  victors  at 


PITCHING    THE    DISCUS,    OR    QUOIT. 
(Discobolus.) 


296 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE,    ETC. 


the  public  games,  or  incidents  in  the  hfe  of  the  state  in  which 
piety  saw  the  special  interposition  of  the  god  in  whose  honor  the 

shrine  had  been  reared. 

Phidias.  —  Among  all  the  great 
sculptors  of  antiquity,  Phidias  stands 
pre-eminent.  He  was  an  Athenian, 
and  was  born  about  488  B.C.  He 
delighted  in  the  beautiful  myths  and 
legends  of  the  Heroic  Age,  and  from 
these  he  drew  subjects  for  his  art. 
Phidias  being  an  architect  as  well 
as  sculptor,  his  patron  Pericles  gave 
into  his  hands  the  superintendence 
of  those  magnificent  buildings  with 
which  he  persuaded  the  Athenians 
to  adorn  their  city.  It  was  his  gen- 
ius that  created  the  wonderful  fig- 
ures of  the  pediments  and  the 
frieze  of  the  Parthenon. 

The  most  celebrated  of  his  co- 
lossal sculptures  were  the  statue  of 
Athena  within  the  Parthenon,  and 
that  of  Olympian  Zeus  in  the  temple 
at  Olympia.  The  statue  of  Athena 
was  of  gigantic  size,  being  about 
forty  feet  in  height,  and  was  con- 
structed of  ivory  and  gold,  the 
hair,  weapons,  and  drapery  being 
of  the  latter  material.  One  hand  of 
the  goddess  rested  upon  a  richly- 
carved  shield,  while  the  other  held 
ATucMA  DADxuc^,r^c     ,^u        . .      ^^^^  3.n  ivory  statue  of  Victory,  it- 

ATHENA    PARTHENOS.     (After  a   statue  ^  ■" 

found  at  Athens  in  1880,  which  is  sup-    sclf  a  mastcrpicce.      On    her   feet 

posed  to  be  a  copy  of  the  colossal  statue     ^VCrC   croldcn  Saudals 
of  Athena   by    Phidias,  described    in  the 

text.)  The    Statue    of  Olympian    Zeus 


PHIDIAS. 


1^)1 


was  also  of  ivory  and  gold.  It  was  sixty  feet  high,  and  repre- 
sented the  god  seated  on  his  throne.  The  hair,  beard,  and  drapery 
were  of  gold.  The  eyes  were  brilliant  stones.  Gems  of  great 
value  decked  the  throne,  and  figures  of  exquisite  design  were 
sculptured  on  the  golden  robe.  The  colossal  proportions  of  this 
wonderful  work,  as  well  as  the  lofty  yet  benign  aspect  of  the  coun- 
tenance, harmonized  well  with  the  popular  conception  of  the 
majesty  and  grace  of  the  ''  father  of  gods  and  men."  It  was 
thought  a  great  misfortune  to  die  without  having  seen  the  Olym- 
pian Zeus.^  The  statue  was  in  existence  for  eight  hundred  years, 
being  finally  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  fifth  century  a.d. 

Phidias  also  executed  other 
works  in  both  bronze  and  marble. 
He  met  an  unworthy  fate.  First 
he  was  accused  of  having  stolen 
a  part  of  the  gold  put  in  his  hands 
for  the  statue  of  Athena  in  the 
Parthenon.  This  charge  was  dis- 
proved by  the  golden  drapery 
being  taken  from  the  statue  and 
weighed.  Then  he  was  j^rose- 
cuted  on  another  charge.  Upon 
the  famous  shield  at  the  feet  of  head  of  the  olympian  zeus  by 
the  statue  of  Athena  in  the   Par-  phidias. 


1"  Phidias  avowed  that  he  took  his  idea  from  the  representation  which 
Homer  gives  in  the  first  book  of  the  Iliad  in  the  passage  thus  translated 
by  Pope : — 

*  He  spake,  and  awful  bends  his  sable  brow, 
Shakes  his  ambrosial  curls,  and  gives  the  nod. 
The  stamp  of  fate  and  sanction  of  the  god. 
High  heaven  with  reverence  the  dread  signal  took, 
And  all  Olympus  to  the  centre  shook.'  " 

Bulfinch's  Age  of  Fable,  p.  404. 

When  Phidias  had  finished  his  work,  so  tradition  tells,  he  prayed  Zeus  to 
give  a  token  if  the  statue  pleased  him.  Straightway  a  thunderbolt  from  heaven 
fell  upon  the  temple  floor,  hy  which  sign  Phidias  knew  that  his  work  was 
accepted. 


298  GREEK  ARCHITECTURE,    ETC. 

thenon,  among  the  figures  in  the  representation  of  a  battle  between 
the  Athenians  and  the  Amazons,  Phidias  introduced  a  portrait  of 
himself  and  also  one  of  his  patron  Pericles.  That  of  himself  was 
the  figure  of  a  "  bald  old  man  "  just  in  the  act  of  hurling  a  huge 
rock.  The  enemies  of  the  artist,  prompted  by  jealousy,  caused 
him  to  be  prosecuted  for  his  presumption,  which  was  considered 
an  act  of  sacrilege.     He  died  in  prison  (432  B.C.). 

Polycletus.  —  At  the  same  time  that  Phidias  was  executing  his 
ideal  representations  of  the  gods,  Polycletus  the  elder,  whose  home 
was  at  Argos,  was  producing  his  renowned  bronze  statues  of  ath- 
letes. Among  his  pieces  was  one  representing  a  spear-bearer, 
which  was  regarded  as  so  perfect  as  to  be  known  as  '■'■  the  Rule." 

Polycletus  also  executed  some  statues  of  gods  and  heroes,  among 
which  his  "Hera"  is  celebrated;  in  this  field,  however,  his  fame 
was  eclipsed  by  that  of  Phidias. 

Praxiteles.  —  This  artist,  after  Polycletus,  stands  next  to  Phid- 
ias as  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  Greek  sculptors.  His  works 
were  executed  during  the  fourth  century  b.c.  Among  his  chief 
pieces  may  be  mentioned  the  "  Cnidian  Aphrodite,"  the  "  Satyr," 
"  Eros,"  and  "  Hermes."  The  first  of  these,  which  stood  in  the 
Temple  of  Aphrodite  at  Cnidus,  was  regarded  by  the  ancients  as 
the  most  perfect  embodiment  of  the  goddess  of  beauty.  Long 
pilgrimages  were  made  from  distant  countries  to  Cnidus  for  the 
sake  of  looking  upon  the  matchless  statue.  Many  copies  were  set 
up  in  different  cities.  About  two  centuries  ago,  excavations  at  Rome 
brought  to  light  a  beautiful  statue,  supposed  to  be  a  copy  of  the 
original  Cnidian  Aphrodite,  by  Cleomenes,  who  lived  during  the 
first  or  second  century  b.c.  This  is  the  so-called  "  Venus  de' 
Medici,"  copies  of  which  are  in  all  our  homes.  The  name  comes 
from  the  circumstance  of  the  statue  having  been  kept  for  some 
time  after  its  discovery  in  the  palace  of  the  Medici  at  Rome. 

To  Praxiteles  is  also  sometimes  ascribed  the  celebrated  group 
representing  the  Niobe  myth.  (By  some  this  work  is  attributed 
to  Scopas,  one  of  the  sculptors  of  the  figures  of  the  Mausoleum  of 
Halicarnassus.)     The  original  work,  which  was  transported  from 


INTERIOR   OF  THE   TEMPLE   OF   ZEUS   AT   OLYMPIA. 
(Reconstructed  by  G.   Rehlender.') 


300  GREEK  ARCHITECTURE,   ETC. 

Asia  Minor  to  Rome  probably  about  35  b.c,  has  perished ;  the 
well-known  group  at  Florence  is  a  Roman  copy. 

Lysippus.  — This  artist,  a  native  of  Sicyon,  is  renowned  for  his 
works  in  bronze.  He  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century  B.C.  His  statues  were  in  great  demand.  More  than  six 
hundred  pieces  of  his  work  were  to  be  counted  in  the  different 
cities  of  Hellas.  Many  of  these  were  of  colossal  size.  Alexander 
gave  the  artist  many  orders  for  statues  of  himself,  and  also  of  the 
heroes  that  fell  in  his  campaigns. 

Chares  and  the  Rhodian  Colossus.  —  Lysippus,  like  all  men  of 
great  genius  in  any  art  or  science,  had  many  disciples  and  left 
many  imitators.  The  most  noted  of  his  pupils  was  Chares,  who 
gave  the  world  the  celebrated  Colossus  at  Rhodes  (about  280  B.C.). 
This  was  another  of  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  World.  Its  height 
was  one  hundred  and  seven  feet,  and  a  man  could  barely  encircle 
with  his  arms  the  thumb  of  the  statue.  The  expense  of  its  erec- 
tion (about  ^500,000)  was  met  by  the  sale  of  spoils  obtained  by 
the  Rhodians  in  war.  After  standing  little  more  than  half  a  cen- 
tury, it  was  overthrown  by  an  earthquake.  For  nine  hundred 
years  the  Colossus  then  lay,  like  a  Homeric  god,  prone  upon  the 
ground.  Finally,  the  Arabs,  having  overrun  this  part  of  the  Orient 
(a.d.  672),  appropriated  the  statue,  and  thriftily  sold  it  to  a  Jew- 
ish merchant.  It  is  said  that  it  required  a  train  of  nine  hundred 
camels  to  bear  away  the  bronze. 

This  gigantic  piece  of  statuary  was  not  a  solitary  one  at  Rhodes  ; 
for  that  city,  next  after  Athens,  was  the  great  art  centre  of  the 
Grecian  world.  Its  streets  and  gardens  and  public  edifices  were 
literally  crowded  with  statues.  Hundreds  met  the  eye  on  every 
hand.  The  island  became  the  favorite  resort  of  artists,  and  the 
various  schools  there  founded  acquired  a  wide  renown.  Very 
many  of  the  most  prized  works  of  Grecian  art  in  our  modern 
museums  were  executed  by  members  of  these  Rhodian  schools. 
The  "Laocoon  Group,"  found  at  Rome  in  1506,  and  now  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Vatican,  is  generally  thought  to  be  the  work  of 
three  Rhodian  sculptors  —  Agesander,  Athenodorus,  and  Polydo- 


GREEK  PAINTING. 


301 


rus.  The  order  for  the  work  was  probably  given  by  the  Roman 
emperor  Titus  (a.d.  79-81),  as  the  group  adorned  his  palace  on 
one  of  the  hills  of  Rome. 


iiiiiiaMiii^^ 

THE    LAOCOON    GROUP. 


Greek  Painting.  —  Although  the  Greek  artists  attained  a  high 
degree  of  excellence  in  painting,  still  they  never  brought  the  art  to 
that  perfection  which  they  reached  in  sculpture.  One  reason  for 
this  less  perfect  development  of  the  art  was  that  paintings  were 


302  GREEK  ARCHITECTURE,   ETC 

never,  like  statues,  objects  of  adoration ;  hence  less  attention  was 
directed  to  them.^ 

With  the  exception  of  antique  vases  and  a  few  patches  of  mural 
decoration,  all  specimens  of  Greek  painting  have  perished.  Not 
a  single  work  of  any  great  painter  of  antiquity  has  survived  the 
accidents  of  time.  Consequently  our  knowledge  of  Greek  paint- 
ing is  derived  chiefly  from  the  descriptions  of  renowned  works,  by 
the  ancient  writers,  and  their  anecdotes  of  great  painters.  These 
classical  stories  are  always  epigrams  of  criticism,  and  thus  possess 
a  technical  as  well  as  literary  and  historical  value.  For  this  rea- 
son, we  shall  repeat  some  of  them. 

Polyg^notus.  —  Polygnotus  (flourished  475-455  b.c.)  has  been 
called  the  Prometheus  of  painting,  because  he  was  the  first  to  give 
fire  and  animation  to  the  expression  of  the  countenance.  "  In  his 
hand,"  it  is  affirmed,  "  the  human  features  became  for  the  first 
time  the  mirror  of  the  soul."  Of  a  Polyxena,^  painted  by  this 
great  master,  it  was  said  that  "  she  carried  in  her  eyelids  the 
whole  history  of  the  Trojan  War." 

The  Athenians  conferred  upon  Polygnotus  the  rights  of  citizen- 
ship, and  he  out  of  gratitude  painted  upon  the  walls  of  some  of 
their  public  buildings  the  grandest  frescoes  the  world  had  ever 
looked  upon.  The  fall  of  Ilium  and  the  battle  of  Marathon  were 
among  the  subjects  he  represented. 

Zeuxis  and  Parrhasius.  — These  great  artists  lived  and  painted 
about  400  B.C.  A  favorite  and  familiar  story  preserves  their  names 
as  companions,  and  commemorates  their  rival  genius.  Zeuxis, 
such  is  the  story,  painted  a  cluster  of  grapes  which  so  closely  imi- 
tated the  real  fruit  that  the  birds  pecked  at  them.  His  rival,  for 
his  piece,  painted  a  curtain.  Zeuxis  asked  Parrhasius  to  draw 
aside  the  veil  and  exhibit  his  picture.     "I  confess  I  am  surpassed," 

1  The  influence  of  religion  upon  art  is  illustrated  by  the  Italian  Renaissance, 
when  painting  entered  the  service  of  the  Church.  See  Medi(vval  and  Mod- 
ern History,  pp.  345,  346. 

^  Polyxena  was  a  daughter  of  the  Trojan  Priam,  famous  for  her  beauty  and 
sufferings.     She  was  sacrificed  as  an  atonement  to  the  shade  of  Achilles. 


APELLES.  303 

generously  admitted  Zeuxis  to  his  rival.     "  I  deceived  birds,  but 
you  have  deceived  the  eyes  of  an  experienced  artist." 

Zeuxis  executed  orders  for  paintings  for  sacred  buildings  in 
Greece  and  Italy,  for  his  fame  was  not  confined  to  a  single  land. 
In  his  latter  years  he  refused  all  remuneration  for  his  pieces, 
esteeming  them  beyond  price  in  money.  A  very  improbable  story 
is  told  of  his  having  "  died  with  laughter  at  a  picture  of  an  old 
woman  which  he  himself  had  painted." 

Apelles. — Apelles,  who  has  been  called  the  "  Raphael  of  an- 
tiquity," was  the  court-painter  of  Alexander  the  Great.  He  was 
such  a  consummate  master  of  the  art  of  painting,  and  carried  it  to 
such  a  state  of  perfection,  that  the  ancient  writers  spoke  of  it  as 
the  "art  of  Apelles."  His  most  celebrated  painting  was  a  repre- 
sentation of  Aphrodite  just  at  the  moment  the  goddess  is  rising 
from  the  sea-foam.  Centuries  after  the  death  of  Apelles  this  paint- 
ing was  carried  off  to  Italy  by  the  Roman  conquerors,  and  for  a 
time  adorned  a  temple  at  Rome,  erected  in  honor  of  Julius  Caesar. 

Several  well-worn  stories  illustrative  of  the  estimation  in  which 
he  was  held  by  his  contemporaries  are  told  of  Apelles.  Entering 
one  day  the  studio  of  the  artist  Protogenes,  and  finding  him 
absent,  instead  of  leaving  his  name,  he  drew,  with  his  own  inim- 
itable grace,  a  single  line  upon  a  canvas,  and  then  withdrew. 
When  Protogenes  returned,  and  his  eye  caught  the  hne,  he  ex- 
claimed that  no  hand  but  that  of  Apelles  ever  drew  such  a  stroke. 
But  in  attempting  to  imitate  it,  he  perceived  that  he  had  him.self 
surpassed  it ;  and,  with  a  natural  pride  in  his  success,  he  instructed 
his  servant,  upon  the  return  of  the  stranger,  to  direct  his  attention 
to  the  line.  Calling  a  second  time,  Apelles  was  shown  what  his 
rival  had  done.  Thereupon  he  drew  a  third  line  that  far  sur- 
passed either  of  the  other  two.  Upon  beholding  it,  Protogenes 
rushed  forth  into  the  city  in  search  of  Apelles,  for  whom  he  ever 
after  evinced  the  warmest  friendship,  combined  with  the  greatest 
admiration. 

A  second  tale  is  told  respecting  a  contest  between  Apelles  and 
some  rival  artists,  in  which  horses  were  the  objects  represented. 


304  GREEK  ARCHITECTURE,   ETC. 

Perceiving  that  the  judges  were  unfriendly  to  him,  and  partial, 
Apelles  insisted  that  less  prejudiced  judges  should  jDronounce  upon 
the  merit  of  the  respective  pieces,  demanding,  at  the  same  time, 
that  the  paintings  should  be  shown  to  some  horses  that  were  near. 
When  brought  before  the  pictures  of  his  rival,  the  horses  exhibited 
no  concern ;  but  upon  being  shown  the  painting  of  Apelles,  they 
manifested  by  neighing  and  other  intelligent  signs  their  instant 
recognition  of  the  companions  the  great  master  had  created. 

Still  another  anecdote  has  given  the  world  one  of  its  best  prov- 
erbs. A  cobbler  criticised  the  shoe-latchet  of  one  of  the  artist's 
figures.  Apelles,  recognizing  that  what  had  caught  the  practised 
eye  of  the  man  was  a  real  defect,  straightway  amended  it.  Then 
the  cobbler  ventured  to  offer  some  criticisms  on  one  of  the  legs. 
Thereupon  Apelles  sharply  rebuked  him  for  passing  beyond  his 
province,  by  replying,  '^  Cobbler,  keep  to  your  last." 

In  the  hands  of  Apelles  Greek  painting  attained  its  highest 
excellence.  After  him  the  art  declined,  and  no  other  really  great 
name  appears. 

Note.  —  Excavations  carried  on,  with  some  intermissions,  from  1878  to 
1886,  upon  the  Acropolis  of  the  ancient  Pergamus,  in  Asia  Minor,  resulted 
in  the  discovery  of  a  great  Altar,  and  a  large  number  of  gigantic  sculptures 
in  high  relief,  which  decorated  the  four  sides  of  the  foundation  of  the  struc- 
ture. The  subject  of  the  representation  was  the  Battle  of  the  Giants  against 
the  Gods.  The  Altar  is  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  King  Eumenes  II. 
(I97~I59  B.C.).  The  sculptures  are  now  to  be  seen  in  the  Berlin  Museum, 
though  they  have  not  yet  been  placed  in  permanent  position.  Taken  as  a 
whole  they  may,  perhaps,  in  the  series  of  Greek  sculptural  monuments  remain- 
ing to  us,  be  given  a  place  second  to  the  Phidian  sculptures  of  the  Athenian 
Parthenon.  Consult  Beschreibung  der  pergameniscken  Bildwerke,  official  pub- 
lication of  the  Berlin  Museum, 


EXCELLENCE    OF  GREEK  LITERATURE.  305 


CHAPTER    XL 

GREEK    LITERATURE. 
I.    Introductory. 

Excellence  of  Greek  Literature.  —  In  literature  the  Greeks  fa^ 
surpassed  every  other  people  of  antiquity.  The  degree  of  excel- 
lence attained  by  them  in  poetry,  in  oratory,  and  in  history  has 
scarcely  been  surpassed  by  any  modern  people  or  race.  Here,  as 
in  art,  they  are  still  the  teachers  of  the  world. 

The  Greeks  as  Literary  Artists.  —  It  was  that  same  exquisite 
sense  of  fitness  and  proportion  and  beauty  which  made  the  Greeks 
artists  in  marble  that  also  made  them  artists  in  Language.  "  Ot 
all  the  beautiful  things  which  they  created,"  says  Professor  Jebb, 
"  their  own  language  was  the  most  beautiful."  This  language  they 
wrought  into  epics  and  lyrics  and  dramas  and  histories  and  ora- 
tions, as  incomparable  in  form  and  beauty  as  their  temples  and 
statues.  The  excellences  of  Greek  literature  —  fitness,  symmetry, 
proportion,  clearness  of  outline — are  the  same  as  those  that  char- 
acterize Greek  art. 

Even  the  Greek  philosophers  arranged  and  expressed  their 
ideas  and  speculations  with  such  regard  to  the  rules  of  literary  art, 
that  many  of  their  productions  are  fairly  entitled  to  a  place  in 
literature  proper.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the  earlier  Greek 
philosophers,  who  wrote  in  hexameter  verse,  and  of  Plato,  in 
whose  works  the  profoundest  speculations  are  embodied  in  the 
most  perfect  literary  form.  But  as  Greek  philosophy,  viewed  as 
a  system  of  thought,  had  a  development  distinct  from  that  of 
Greek  literature  proper,  we  shall  deal  with  it  in  a  separate  chapter, 
contenting  ourselves  here  with  merely  pointing  out  the  unusually 


306  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

close  connection  in  ancient  Greece  between  Philosophy  and  Liter- 
ature. 

Periods  of  Greek  Literature.  —  Greek  literature,  for  the  time 
covered  by  our  history,  is  usually  divided  into  three  periods,  as 
follows  :  (i)  The  Period  before  475  B.C. ;  (2)  The  Attic  or  Golden 
Age  (475-300  B.C.);  (3)  The  Alexandrian  Age  (300-146  B.C.). 

The  first  period  gave  birth  to  epic  and  lyric  poetry ;  the  second, 
to  history,  oratory,  and  above  all  to  dramatic  literature  ;  w^hile  the 
third  period  was  one  of  decline,  during  which  the  productions  of 
the  preceding  epochs  were  worked  over  and  commented  upon,  or 
feebly  imitated.  Occasionally,  however,  a  gleam  of  real  genius 
brings  back  for  a  moment  the  splendors  of  the  departing  day. 

II.   The  Period  before  475   b.c. 

The  Homeric  Poems.  —  The  earliest  specimens  of  Greek  poetry 
are  the  so-called  "  Homeric  poems,"  consisting  of  the  Iliad  and 
the  Odyssey.  The  subject  of  the  Iliad  \^  the  "Wrath  of  Achilles," 
and  the  woes  it  brought  upon  the  Greeks  who  pressed  the  siege  of 
Ilios  or  Troy.  The  Odyssey  tells  of  the  long  wanderings  of  the 
hero  Odysseus  (Ulysses)  up  and  down  over  many  seas  while 
seeking  his  native  Ithaca,  after  the  downfall  of  Ihos. 

The  first  poem,  which  is  by  far  the  superior  of  the  two,  must  be 
pronounced  "  the  masterpiece  of  Greek  literature ;  perhaps  of 
all  literatures."  Before  being  committed  to  writing,  it  had  prob- 
ably been  preserved  and  transmitted  orally  for  several  generations. 
It  has  been  translated  into  all  languages,  and  has  been  read  with 
an  ever  fresh  interest  by  generation  after  generation  for  nearly 
three  thousand  years.  Alexander,  it  is  told,  slept  with  a  copy 
beneath  his  pillow,  —  a  copy  prepared  especially  for  him  by  his 
preceptor  Aristotle,  and  called  the  "  casket  edition,"  from  the 
jewelled  box  in  which  Alexander  is  said  to  have  kept  it.  We 
preserve  it  quite  as  sacredly  in  all  our  courses  of  classical  study. 

The  age  in  which  the  poem  was  written  has  been  called  the 
Childhood  of  the  World.     The  work  is  characterized  by  the  fresh- 


THE  HOMERIC  POEMS. 


307 


ness  and  vitality  of  youth.  It  exerted  an  incalculable  influence 
upon  the  literary  and  religious  life  of  the  Hellenic  race.  It  has 
made  warriors  as  well  as  poets,  for  many  of  its  passages  are  instinct 
with  the  martial  spirit.  It  incited  the  mihtary  ambition  of  Alex- 
ander, of  Hannibal,  and  of  Caesar ;  it  inspired  Virgil,  Dante,  and 
Milton.     All  epic  writers  have  taken  it  as  their  model. 

Date  and  Authorship  of  the  Homeric  Poems.  —  Until  the  rise 
of  modern  German  criticism,  the  Iliad  2.xA  the  Odyssey  \i^xt  almost 


HOMER. 


universally  ascribed  to  a  single  bard  named  Homer,  who  was 
believed  to  have  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  or  tenth  cen- 
tury B.C.,  one  or  two  centuries  after  the  events  commemorated  in 
his  poems.  Though  tradition  represents  many  cities  as  contending 
for  the  honor  of  having  been  his  birthplace,  still  he  was  generally 
regarded  as  a  native  of  Smyrna,  in  Asia  Minor.  He  travelled 
widely  (so  it  was  believed),  lost  his  sight,  and  then,  as  a  wander- 
ing minstrel,  sang  his  immortal  verses  to  admiring  listeners  in  the 
different  cities  of  Hellas. 


308  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

But  at  the  close  of  the  last  century  (in  1795)  ^^  German 
scholar  Wolf,  after  a  critical  study  of  the  two  Homeric  poems, 
declared  that  they  were  not,  either  of  them,  the  work  of  a  single 
poet,  but  that  each  was  made  up  of  a  large  number  of  earlielr  short 
lays,  or  ballads.  The  work  of  uniting  these  separate  pieces  into  the 
Iliad  and  the  Odyssey,  he  believed  to  have  been  performed  under 
the  direction  of  the  Tyrant  Pisistratus  (see  p.  204). 

Wolf's  theory  opened  a  great  "  Battle  of  the  Books."  Since  his 
day  there  has  been  no  lull  in  the  so-called  "  Homeric  controversy." 
The  following  are  the  pretty  generally  acknowledged  results  thus 
far  of  the  great  debate  :  The  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey,  as  they  stand 
to-day,  are  not,  either  of  them,  the  creation  of  a  single  poet.  They 
are  mosaics ;  that  is,  they  are  built  up  out  of  fragments  of  an 
extensive  ballad  literature  that  grew  up  in  an  age  preceding  the 
Homeric.  The  extent,  variety,  and  beauty  of  this  pre-Homeric 
literature  implies  a  very  long  period  of  Hellenic  development  lying 
back  of  the  age  that  produced  the  Homeric  poems. 

The  Iliad  is  the  older  of  the  two  poems.  It  is  made  up  of  two 
epics,  the  "Wrath  of  Achilles"  and  the  "  Doom  of  Ilios,"  the 
former  of  which  is  by  far  the  more  archaic.  Each  of  these  earlier 
epics  was  itself  made  up  of  still  earlier  lays.  The  "Wrath  of 
Achilles,"  which  forms  the  nucleus  of  the  Iliad  d.'^  we  have  it,  may, 
with  very  great  probability,  be  ascribed  to  Homer,  whom  we  may 
believe  to  have  been  one,  and  that  the  most  prominent,  of  a 
brotherhood  of  bards,  or  rhapsodists,  who  flourished  about  850  or 
750  B.C. 

The  Odyssey  is  probably  a  century  later  than  the  Iliad.  The 
unity  of  the  poem  is  greater  than  that  of  the  Iliad,  and  it  bears  so 
plainly  the  impression  of  a  single  great  mind,  that  we  may  well 
believe  it  to  be  essentially  the  work  of  a  single  bard,  instead  of  a 
band,  or  fraternity,  of  poets.  But  the  theory  of  the  single  author- 
ship of  the  Odyssey  does  not  imply  that  the  entire  contents  of  the 
poem  were  the  creation  of  a  single  mind.  Like  the  Iliad,  as 
already  affirmed,  it  was  made  up  of  pre-existing  lays,  or  epics, 
welded  together. 


THE   HESIODIC  POEMS.  309 

The  Hesiodic  Poems.  —  Hesiod,  who  lived  a  century  or  more 
after  the  age  that  gave  birth  to  the  Homeric  poems,  was  the  poet 
of  nature  and  of  real  life,  especially  of  peasant  life,  in  the  dim 
transition  age  of  Hellas.  The  Homeric  bards  sing  of  the  deeds 
of  heroes,  and  of  a  far-away  time  when  gods  mingled  with  men. 
Hesiod  sings  of  common  men,  and  of  every-day,  present  duties. 
His  greatest  poem,  a  didactic  epic,  is  entitled  Works  a?id  Days. 
This  is,  in  the  main,  a  sort  of  farmer's  calendar,  in  which  the  poet 
points  out  to  the  husbandman  the  lucky  and  unlucky  days  for 
doing  certain  kinds  of  work,  gives  him  minute  instructions  re- 
specting farm  labor,  descants  upon  justice,  eulogizes  industry, 
and  intersperses  among  all  his  practical  lines  homely  maxims  of 
morality  and  beautiful  descriptive  passages  of  the  changing  seasons. 
Virgil's  Georgics  was  based  upon  the  Works  and  Days. 

Another  work  called  the  Theogony  is  also  usually  ascribed  to 
Hesiod.  This  poem  has  been  well  described  as  being  "  an  author- 
ized version  of  the  genealogy  of  the  Greek  gods  and  heroes." 

Lyric  Poetry ;  Pindar.  —  As  epic  poetry,  represented  by  the 
Homeric  and  Hesiodic  poems,  was  the  characteristic  production  of 
the  earlier  part  of  the  first  period  of  Greek  Literature,  so  was  lyric 
poetry  the  most  noteworthy  product  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
period. 

The  ^olian  island  of  Lesbos  was  the  hearth  and  home  of  the 
earlier  lyric  poets.  The  songs  of  these  Lesbian  bards  fairly  glow 
and  quiver  with  ardent  passion.  Among  the  earhest  of  these 
singers  were  Alcaeus  and  Sappho.  No  higher  praise  of  Alcseus  is 
needed  than  mention  of  the  fact  that  the  Roman  poet  Horace  was 
so  pleased  with  his  verses  that  he  borrowed  sometimes  entire  odes 
of  the  Lesbian  bard. 

The  poetess  Sappho  was  exalted  by  the  Greeks  to  a  place  next 
to  Homer.  Plato  calls  her  the  Tenth  Muse.  "  Of  all  the  poets 
of  the  world,"  writes  Symonds,  "  of  all  the  illustrious  artists  of 
literature,  Sappho  is  the  one  whose  every  word  has  a  peculiar  and 
unmistakable  perfume,  a  seal  of  absolute  and  inimitable  grace." 
Although  her  fame  endures,  her  poetry,  except  some  mere  frag- 
ments, has  perished. 


310  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

Anacreon  was  a  courtier  at  the  time  of  the  Greek  tyrannies. 
He  was  a  native  of  Ionia,  but  passed  much  of  his  time  at  the  court 
of  Polycrates  of  Samos,  and  at  that  of  the  Tyrant  Hipparchus  at 
Athens.  He  seems  to  have  enjoyed  to  the  full  the  gay  and  easy 
life  of  a  courtier,  and  sung  so  voluptuously  of  love  and  wine  and 
festivity  that  the  term  "Anacreontic"  has  come  to  be  used  to 
characterize  all  poetry  over-redolent  of  these  themes. 

Simonides  of  Ceos  (556-468  b.c.)  Hved  during  the  Persian  Wars, 
He  composed  immortal  couplets  for  the  monuments  of  the  fallen 
heroes  of  Thermopylae  and  Salamis.  These  epigrams  were  burned 
into  the  very  soul  of  every  person  in  Hellas. 

But  the  greatest  of  the  Greek  lyric  poets,  and  perhaps  the 
greatest  of  all  lyric  poets  of  every  age  and  race,  was  Pindar  (about 
522-443  B.C.).  He  was  born  at  Thebes,  but  spent  most  of  his 
time  in  the  cities  of  Magna  Grsecia.  Such  was  the  reverence  in 
which  his  memory  was  held  that  when  Alexander,  one  hundred 
years  after  Pindar's  time,  levelled  the  city  of  Thebes  to  the  ground 
on  account  of  a  revolt,  the  house  of  the  poet  was  spared,  and  left 
standing  amid  the  general  ruin.  The  greater  number  of  Pindar's 
poems  were  inspired  by  the  scenes  of  the  national  festivals.  They 
describe  in  lofty  strains  the  splendors  of  the  Olympian  chariot- 
races,  or  the  glory  of  the  victors  at  the  Isthmian,  the  Nemean, 
or  the  Pythian  games. 

Pindar  insists  strenuously  upon  virtue  and  self-culture.  With 
deep  meaning,  he  says,  ''  Become  that  which  thou  art "  ;  that  is, 
be  that  which  you  are  made  to  be. 

III.   The  Attic  or  Golden  Age  (475-300  b.c). 

Influences  Favorable  to  a  Great  Literature. — The  Golden  Age 
of  Greek  Literature  followed  the  Persian  Wars,  and  was,  in  a  large 
measure,  produced  by  them.  Every  great  literary  outburst  is  the 
result  of  a  profound  stirring  of  the  depths  of  national  life.  All 
Hellas  had  been  profoundly  moved  by  the  tremendous  struggle 
for  political  existence.     Athens  especially  had  hoped  all,  risked 


ORIGIN-   OF   THE    GREEK  DRAMA. 


311 


all,  achieved  all.  Her  citizens  now  felt  an  unwonted  exaltation 
of  life.  Hence  Athens  naturally  becomes  the  home  and  center 
of  the  literary  activity  of  the  period. 

The  Attic  Literature  embraces  almost  every  specimen  of 
composition,  yet  the  Drama,  History,  and  Oratory  are  its  most 
characteristic  forms.  Especially  favorable  were  the  influences  of 
the  time  for  the  production  of  great  dramatic  works.  The  two 
conditions,  "intense  activity  and  an  appreciative  audience,"  with- 
out which,  it  is  asserted,  a  great  drama  cannot  exist,  met  in  the 
age  of  Pericles.  Hence  the  unrivalled  excellence  of  the  Attic 
drama,  the  noblest  production  of  the  artistic  genius  of  the  Greeks. 

The  Greek  Drama  and  Dramatists. 

Origin  of  the  Greek  Drama.  —  The  Greek  drama,  in  both  its 
branches  of  tragedy  and  comedy,  grew  out  of  the  songs  and  dances 
instituted  in  honor  of  the  god  of  wine  —  Dionysus.^ 


BACCHIC    PROCESSION. 


Tragedy  (goat-song,  possibly  from  the  accompanying  sacrifice 
of  a  goat)  sprang  from  the  graver  songs,  and  comedy  (village- 
song)  from  the  lighter  and  more  farcical  ones.  Gradually,  recital 
and  dialogue  were  added,  there  being  at  first  but  a  single  speaker, 
then  two,  and  finally  three,  which  last  was  the  classical  number. 

^  The  same  as  the  Roman  Bacchus. 


312  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

Thespis  (about  536  B.C.)  is  said  to  have  introduced  this  idea  of  the 
dialogue,  hence  the  term  "Thespian"  apphed  to  the  tragic  drama. 

Owing  to  its  origin,  the  Greek  drama  ahvays  retained  a  rehgious 
character,  and  further,  presented  two  distinct  features,  the  chorus 
(the  songs  and  dances)  and  the  dialogue.  At  first,  the  chorus 
was  the  all-important  part ;  but  later,  the  dialogue  became  the 
more  prominent  portion,  the  chorus,  however,  always  remaining  an 
essential  feature  of  the  performance.  Finally,  in  the  golden  age  of 
the  Attic  stage,  the  chorus  dancers  and  singers  were  carefully 
trained,  at  great  expense,  and  the  dialogue  became  the  master- 
piece of  some  great  poet,  —  and  then  the  Greek  drama,  the  most 
splendid  creation  of  human  genius,  was  complete. 

The  Subjects  of  the  Tragic  Poets.  —  The  tragic  poets  of  Athens 
drew  the  material  of  their  plays  chiefly  from  the  myths  and  legends 
of  the  heroic  age,  just  as  Shakespeare  for  many  of  his  plays  used 
the  legends  of  the  semi-historical  periods  of  his  own  country  or 
of  other  countries.  These  legendary  tales  they  handled  freely, 
so  changing,  coloring,  and  moralizing  them  as  to  render  them  the 
vehicle  for  the  conveying  of  great  ethical  lessons,  or  of  profound 
philosophical  ideas  regarding  the  divine  government  of  the  world. 
Indeed,  the  mission  of  the  tragic  poets  was  to  harmonize  the  fuller 
knowledge,  the  truer  religious  feeling  of  the  age,  with  the  ancient 
traditions  and  myths,  —  to  reveal  the  ethical  truth  which  the  old 
stories  of  the  gods  and  heroes  contained,  or  which  they  might  be 
made  to  symbolize. 

The  Leading  Idea  of  Greek  Tragedy.  —  Symonds  believes  the 
fundamental  idea  of  Greek  tragedy  to  be  the  Doctrine  of  Nemesis. 
This  doctrine  seems  to  have  been  evolved  out  of  the  old  idea  of 
the  Divine  Jealousy  (see  p.  184).  Just  as  we  have  softened  and 
moralized  the  old  Hebrew  idea  that  all  suffering  is  Divine  punish- 
ment for  sin,  evolving  from  it  the  Christian  doctrine  of  affliction, 
which  regards  a  large  part  of  human  pains  and  sufferings,  not  as 
penal  inflictions,  but  rather  as  trials  intended  as  a  means  of  spir- 
itual development ;  in  like  manner  the  Greeks  moralized  their 
unethical  views  of  the  cause  of  sudden  reverses  of  fortune,  of  sud- 


THE    THREE    GREAT   TRAGIC  POETS.  313 

den  downfalls,  and  came  to  hold  the  doctrine  that  it  is  not  mere 
prosperity  itself  which  arouses  the  anger  and  opposition  of  the 
gods,  but  the  pride  and  arrogance  usually  engendered  in  mortals 
by  over-great  prosperity. 

To  understand  how  the  Greeks  should  have  come  to  regard 
insolent  self-assertion,  or  the  unrestrained  indulgence  of  appetite 
or  passion  as  the  most  heinous  of  sins,  we  must  recall  once  more 
the  legend  upon  the  front  of  the  Delphian  temple  —  "  Measure  in 
all  things."  As  proportion  was  the  cardinal  element  of  beauty  in 
art,  so  wise  moderation  was  the  prime  quality  in  virtue.  Those 
who  moderated  not  their  desire  of  fame,  of  wealth,  of  dominion, 
were  the  most  impious  of  men,  and  all  such  the  avenging  Nemesis 
failed  not  to  bring,  through  their  own  mad  presumption  and  over- 
vaulting  ambition,  to  overwhelming  and  irretrievable  ruin.  The 
results  of  the  Persian  war  confirmed  the  Greeks  in  this  view  of  the 
moral  government  of  the  world ;  for  had  not  they  themselves  seen 
most  signally  punished  the  unbridled  ambition,  the  insolence,  the 
presumptuous  impiety,  of  the  scourgers  of  the  Hellespont  and  the 
destroyers  of  the  temples  of  the  gods  ? 

We  shall  see  in  a  moment  how  this  idea  inspired  some  of  the 
greatest  of  the  Greek  dramas. 

The  Three  Great  Tragic  Poets.  —  There  are  three  great  names 
in  Greek  tragedy,  —  ^schylus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides.  These 
dramatists  all  wrote  during  the  splendid  period  which  followed  the 
victories  of  the  Persian  war,  when  the  intellectual  life  of  all  Hellas, 
and  especially  that  of  Athens,  was  strung  to  the  highest  tension. 
This  lent  nervous  power  and  intensity  to  almost  all  they  wrote, 
particularly  to  the  tragedies  of  yEschylus  and  Sophocles.  Of  the 
two  hundred  and  fifty-eight  dramas  produced  by  these  poets,  only 
thirty-two  have  come  down  to  us ;  all  the  others  have  perished 
through  the  accidents  of  time. 

^schylus  (525-456  B.C.)  was  more  than  Shakespearian  in  the 
gloom  and  intensity  of  his  tragedies.  He  knew  how  to  touch  the 
hearts  of  the  generation  that  had  won  the  victories  of  the  Persian 
war ;  for  he  had  fought  with  honor  both  at  Marathon  and  at  Sala- 


314 


GREEK  LITERATURE. 


mis.  But  it  was  on  a  very  different  arena  that  he  was  destined 
to  win  his  most  enduring  fame.  Eleven  times  did  he  carry  off  the 
prize  in  tragic  composition.  The  Athenians  called  him  the  "  Father 
of  Tragedy."  Prometheui  Bound  is  one  of  his  chief  works  —  "  one 
of  the  boldest  and  most  original  dramas,"  Ranke  declares,  "  that 
have  ever  been  written."  The  old  Promethean  myth  which  tEs- 
chylus  makes  the  ground-work  of  this  tragedy  was  immoral ;  that 
is,  it  represents  the  Supreme  Zeus  as  treating  the  Titan  arbitrarily 
and  unjustly.^    But  ^schylus  moralizes  the  tale.    He  makes  prom- 


/ESCHYLUS. 


inent  Prometheus'  faults  of  impatience  and  self-will,  and  shows 
that  his  sufferings  are  but  the  just  penalty  of  his  presumption  and 
self-assertion. 

1  In  punishment  for  having  stolen  fire  from  heaven  and  given  it  to  men,  and 
for  having  taught  them  the  arts  of  life,  the  Titan  Prometheus  is  chained  by 
Zeus  to  a  lonely  cliff  on  the  remote  shores  of  the  Euxine,  and  an  eagle  is 
sent  to  feed  upon  his  liver,  which  each  night  grows  anew. 


THE    THREE    GREAT    TRAGIC  POETS.  315 

Another  of  the  great  tragedies  of  ^schylus  is  his  Agamemnon^ 
thought  by  some  to  be  his  masterpiece.  The  subject  is  the  crime 
of  Clytsemnestra  (see  p.  i68).  It  is  a  tragedy  crowded  with  spirit- 
shaking  terrors,  and  filled  with  more  than  human  crimes  and  woes. 
Nowhere  is  portrayed  with  greater  power  the  awful  vengeance  with 
which  the  implacable  Nemesis  is  armed.^ 

The  theme  of  ^Eschylus'  Persce  was  the  defeat  of  Xerxes  and 
his  host,  which  afforded  the  poet  a  good  opportunity  "  to  state 
his  philosophy  of  Nemesis,  here  being  a  splendid  tragic  instance  of 
pride  humbled,  of  greatness  brought  to  nothing,  through  one  man's 
impiety  and  pride."  The  poet  teaches  that  "  no  mortal  may  dare 
raise  his  heart  too  high,"  —  that  "  Zeus  tames  excessive  hfting  up 
of  heart." 

Sophocles  (495-405  B.C.)  while  yet  a  youth  gained  the  prize  in 
a  poetic  contest  with  yEschylus  (468  B.C.),  Cimon  being  the  chief 
umpire.  Plutarch  says  that  yEschylus  was  so  chagrined  by  his 
defeat  that  he  left  Athens  and  retired  to  Sicily.  Sophocles  now 
became  the  leader  of  tragedy  at  Athens.  In  almost  every  contest 
he.  carried  away  the  first  prize.  He  lived  through  nearly  a  cen- 
tury, a  century,  too,  that  comprised  the  most  brilliant  period  of  the 
life  of  Hellas.     His  dramas  were  perfect  works  of  art. 

The  central  idea  of  his  dramas  is  the  same  as  that  which  char- 
acterizes those  of  yEschylus ;  namely,  that  self-will  and  insolent 
pride  arouse  the  righteous  indignation  of  the  gods,  and  that  no 
mortal  can  contend  successfully  against  the  will  of  Zeus.  His 
chief  works  are  CEdipus  Tyrannus,  CEdipus  Coloneus,  and  (prob- 
ably) A7itigone,  all  of  which  are  founded  upon  the  old  tales  of  the 
royal  hne  of  Thebes  (see  p.  164). 

Euripides   (485-406  B.C.)   was  a  more  popular  dramatist  than 

1  The  Agamemnon  forms  the  first  of  a  trilogy ;  that  is,  a  series  of  three  dramas, 
the  other  pieces  being  entitled  the  Chcephorcz  and  the  Eumenides.  These 
continue  the  subject  of  the  Agamemnon,  so  that  the  three  really  form  a  single 
drama  or  story.  On  the  Greek  stage,  the  several  parts  of  the  trilogy  were 
performed  successively  the  same  day.  This  trilogy  of  ^.schylus  is  the  only 
one  from  the  ancient  stage  of  which  all  the  parts  have  come  down  to  us. 


316 


GREEK  LITERATURE. 


either  ^schylus  or  Sophocles,  ^schyliis  was  too  lofty,  severe, 
and  earnest  a  poet  to  be  long  a  favorite  with  the  volatile  and 
pleasure-loving  Athenians.     They  tired  of  him  as  they  did  of  Aris- 


SOPHOCLES. 


tides.  Nor  was  Sophocles  sensational  enough  to  please  them, 
after  the  state  of  exalted  rehgious  feeling  awakened  by  the  tremen- 
dous experiences  of  the  Persian  war  had  passed  away.  Euripides 
was  a  better  representative  than  either  of  these  of  the  Athenian  in 


COMEDY:    ARISTOPHANES.  317 

his  normal  mood.     The  Athenian  cared  more  for  aesthetics  than 
ethics. 

The  fame  of  Euripides  passed  far  beyond  the  Umits  of  Greece. 
Herodotus  asserts  that  the  verses  of  the  poet  were  recited  by  the 
natives  of  the  remote  country  of  Gedrosia ;  and  Plutarch  says  that 
the  Sicilians  were  so  fond  of  his  lines  that  many  of  the  Athenian 
prisoners,  taken  before  Syracuse,  bought  their  liberty  by  teaching 
their  masters  such  of  his  verses  as  they  could  repeat  from  memory. 
Euripides  is  said  to  have  written  nearly  one  hundred  plays,  of 
which  number,  however,  only  seventeen  remain  to  us.  Almost  all 
of  these  are  based  on  incidents  detailed  in  the  Argonautic,  Theban, 
and  Trojan  legends. 

Comedy:  Aristophanes.  —  Foremost  among  all  writers  of  com- 
edy must  be  placed  Aristophanes  (about  444-380  B.C.).  He 
introduces  us  to  the  every-day  life  of  the  least  admirable  classes  of 
Athenian  society.  Four  of  his  most  noted  works  are  the  Clouds, 
the  Knights,  the  Birds,  and  the  Wasps. 

In  the  comedy  of  the  Clouds,  Aristophanes  especially  ridicules 
the  Sophists,  a  school  of  philosophers  and  teachers  just  then  rising 
into  prominence  at  Athens,  of  whom  the  satirist  unfairly  makes 
Socrates  the  representative.  But  the  points  of  the  play  were  sus- 
ceptible of  a  general  application.  "  Everything  that  deceived, 
concealed,  shifted,  eluded,  was  symbolized  by  clouds." 

The  aim  of  the  Knights  was  the  punishment  and  ruin  of  Cleon, 
whom  we  already  know  as  one  of  the  most  conceited  and  insolent 
of  the  demagogues  of  Athens. 

The  play  of  the  Birds  is  "  the  everlasting  allegory  of  foolish 
sham  and  flimsy  ambition."  "  Cloud-Cuckootown,"  we  quote  the 
critic  Symonds,  "  is  any  castle  in  the  air  or  South  Sea  Bubble 
which  might  take  the  fancy  of  the  Athenian  mob."  But  while 
having  a  general  application,  it  was  aimed  particularly  at  the  ambi- 
tious Sicilian  schemes  of  Alcibiades  j  for  at  the  time  the  play 
appeared,  the  Athenian  army  was  before  Syracuse,  and  elated  by 
the  good  news  daily  arriving,  the  Athenians  were  building  the  most 
gorgeous  air-castles,  and  indulging  in  the  most  extravagant  day- 
dreams of  universal  dominion. 


318 


GREEK   LITERATURE, 


In  the  Wasps ^  the  poet  satirizes  the  proceedings  in  the  Athenian 
law-courts,  by  showing  how  the  great  citizen-juries  were  befooled 
by  the  demagogues. 

But  Aristophanes  was  something  more  than  a  master  of  mere 
mirth-provoking  satire  and  ridicule  :  along  with  his  exquisite  sense 
of  the  humorous  he  possessed  a  nature  most  delicately  sensitive  to 
the  finer  emotions.  Many  of  the  choruses  of  his  pieces  are  inex- 
pressibly tender  and  beautiful.-^ 

History  and  Historians. 

Poetry  is  the  first  form  of  literary  expression  among  all  peoples. 
So  we  must  not  be  surprised  to  find  that  it  was  not  until  several 
centuries  after  the  composition  of  the  Homeric  poems  —  that  is, 
about  the  sixth  century  B.C.  —  that  prose-writing  appeared  among 
the  Greeks.  Historical  composition  was  then  first  cultivated.  We 
can  speak  briefly  of  only  three  historians  — 
Herodotus,  Thucydides,  and  Xenophon  — 
whose  names  were  cherished  among  the  an- 
cients, and  whose  writings  are  highly  valued 
and  carefully  studied  by  ourselves. 

Herodotus.  —  Herodotus  (about  484-402 
B.C.),  born  at  Halicarnassus,  in  Asia  Minor,  is 
called  the  "  Father  of  History."  He  travelled 
over  much  of  the  then  known  world  ',  visited 
Italy,  Egypt,  and  Babylonia ;  and  describes  as 
an  eye-witness,  with  a  never- failing  vivacity  and 
freshness,  the  wonders  of  the  different  lands 
he  had  seen.  Herodotus  lived  in  a  story-telling 
age,  and  he  is  himself  an  inimitable  story-teller. 
To  him  we  are  indebted  for  a  large  part 
of  the  tales  of  antiquity — stories  of  men  and  events  which  we 
never  tire  of  repeating.     He  was  over-credulous,  and  was  often 

"^  Menander  (342-292  B.C.).  —  Menander  was,  after  Aristophanes,  the  most 
noted  of  Greek  comic  poets.  He  was  the  leader  of  what  is  known  as  the  New 
Comedy.     His  plays  were  very  popular  with  the  Romans. 


HERODOTUS. 


HISTORY:  HERODOTUS.  319 

imposed  upon  by  his  guides  in  Egypt  and  at  Babylon ;  but  he 
describes  with  great  care  and  accuracy  what  he  himself  saw.  It  is 
sometimes  very  difficult,  however,  to  determine  just  what  he  actu- 
ally did  see  with  his  own  eyes  and  experience  in  his  own  person ; 
for  it  seems  certain  that,  following  the  custom  of  the  story-tellers 
of  his  time,  he  often  related  as  his  own  personal  adventures  the 
experiences  of  others,  yet  with  no  thought  of  deceiving.  In  this 
he  might  be  likened  to  our  modern  writers  of  historical  romances. 

The  central  theme  of  his  great  History  is  the  Persian  wars,  the 
struggle  between  Asia  and  Greece.  Around  this  he  groups  the 
several  stories  of  the  nations  of  antiquity.  In  the  pictures  which 
the  artist-historian  draws,  we  see  vividly  contrasted,  as  in  no  other 
writings,  the  East  and  the  West,  Persia  and  Hellas. 

The  fundamental  idea  of  the  whole  history,  the  conception  which 
shapes  and  colors  the  main  narrative,  is  the  same  as  that  which 
inspires  the  tragedies  of  y^schylus  —  the  doctrine  of  Nemesis. 
This  is  expressed  in  the  admonition  which  Artabanus  is.  repre- 
sented as  giving  to  his  nephew  Xerxes,  when  the  king  was  medi- 
tating his  expedition  against  Greece  :  "The  god  loves  to  cut  down 
all  towering  things  .  .  .  the  god  suffers  none  but  himself  to  be 
haughty.  Rash  haste  ever  goes  before  a  fall ;  but  self-restraint 
brings  blessings,  not  seen  at  the  moment  perhaps,  yet  found  out 
in  due  time."  ^  Possessed  by  this  idea,  the  historian  becomes  a 
dramatist,  and  his  history  a  world-tragedy.  In  the  ethical  lesson  it 
teaches,  it  is  practically  an  expansion  of  the  ^schylean  drama  of 
the  Persce. 

Besides  this  leading  Herodotean  idea  of  Nemesis,  there  are  two 
other  important  conceptions  entering  into  the  historian's  philoso- 
phy of  the  universe.  These  are  the  notion  of  the  Divine  Envy 
(see  p.  183),  and  the  general  doctrine  of  the  interfer-ence  of  the 
gods  in  human  affairs.  Herodotus  had  a  naiVe  behef  in  omens, 
oracles,  and  miracles  generally,  and  this  leads  him  constantly  to 
attribute  to  preternatural  causes  the  most  ordinary  events  of  his- 

1  Herodotus,  Book  VII.  chap.  10.  Quoted  by  Professor  Jebb,  Greek  Litera- 
ture, p.  105. 


320 


GREEK  LITERATURE. 


tory.  His  belief  in  the  old  immoral  doctrine  of  the  Envy  of  the 
Gods,  —  which  he  retains  along  with  his  maturer  views  of  Neme- 
sis, —  causes  him  to  delight  in  telling  stories  illustrative  of  the 
vicissitudes  of  life  and  the  instability  of  fortune,  as  witness  his  tales 
of  Croesus  and  Polycrates  (see  pp.  131,  188,  note). 

Thucydides.  — Thucydides  (about  471-400  b.c),  though  not  so 
popular  an  historian  as  Herodotus,  was  a  much  more  philosoph- 
ical one.  He  was  born  near  Athens.  A  pretty 
story  is  told  of  his  youth,  which  must  be  repeated, 
though  critics  have  pronounced  it  fabulous.  The 
tale  is  that  Thucydides,  when  only  fifteen,  was 
taken  by  his  father  to  hear  Herodotus  recite 
his  history  at  the  Olympian  games,  and  that  the 
reading  and  the  accompanying  applause  caused 
the  boy  to  shed  tears,  and  to  resolve  to  become 
an  historian. 

Thucydides  was  engaged  in  military  service 
during  the  first  years  of  the  Peloponnesian  War ; 
but,  on  account  of  his  being  unfortunate,  possibly 
through  his  own  neglect,  the  Athenians  deprived 
him  of  his  command,  and  he  went  into  an  exile  of  twenty  years. 
It  is  to  this  circumstance  that  we  are  indebted  for  his  invaluable 
History  of  the  War  betweeii  the  Pelopon7iesians  and  Athenia7is. 

Through  the  closest  observation  and  study,  he  qualified  himself 
to  become  the  historian  of  what  he  from  the  first  foresaw  would 
prove  a  memorable  war.  "  I  lived,"  he  says,  "  through  its  whole 
extent,  in  the  very  flower  of  my  understanding  and  strength,  and 
with  a  close  application  of  my  thoughts,  to  gain  an  exact  insight 
into  all  its  occurrences."  He  died  before  his  task  was  completed. 
The  work  is  considered  a  model  of  historical  writing.  In  fairness, 
truthfulness,  clearness,  and  philosophical  insight,  Thucydides  has 
never  been  surpassed  as  a  narrator  and  interpreter  of  events. 
Demosthenes  read  and  re-read  his  writings  to  improve  his  own 
style  ;  and  the  greatest  orators  and  historians  of  modem  times 
have  been  equally  diligent  students  of  the  work  of  the  great  Athe- 


THUCYDIDES. 


man. 


XENOPHON.  321 

Xenoplioii.  — Xenophon  (about  445-355  b.c.)  was  an  Athenian, 
and  is  known  both  as  a  general  and  a  writer.  The  works  that 
render  his  name  so  famihar  are  his  Anabasis,  a  simple  yet  thrilling 
narrative  of  the  retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand  Greeks ;  and  his 
Memorabilia,  or  Recollections  of  Socrates.  This  work  by  his 
devoted  yet  by  no  means  brilliant  pupil  is  the  most  faithful  por- 
traiture that  we  possess  of  that  philosoi^her. 

Xenophon's  Cyj-opcedia,  or  Education  of  Cy7-us,  is  essentially  an 
historical  romance,  which  portrays  not  alone  the  youth,  but  the 
whole  life  of  Cyrus  the  Great,  besides  delineating  the  manners  and 
institutions  of  the  Persians.  It  has  been  classed  with  Plato's  Re- 
public and  More's  Utopia. 

Oratory. 

Influence  of  the  Public  Assembly.  —  The  art  of  oratory  among 
the  Greeks  was  fostered  and  developed  by  the  democratic  char- 
acter of  their  institutions.  In  the  public  assemblies  all  questions 
that  concerned  the  state  were  discussed  and  decided.  The 
debates,  as  we  have  seen,  were,  in  the  democratic  cities,  open  to 
all.  The  gift  of  eloquence  secured  for  its  possessor  a  sure  pre- 
eminence, and  conferred  a  certain  leadership  in  the  affairs  of  state. 
The  law-courts,  too,  especially  the  great  jury  courts  of  Athens,  were 
schools  of  oratory ;  for  every  citizen  was  obliged  to  be  his  own 
advocate  and  to  defend  his  own  case.^  Hence  the  attention  be- 
stowed upon  public  speaking,  and  the  high  degree  of  perfection 
attained  by  the  Greeks  in  the  difficult  art  of  persuasion.  "  It  was 
the  prevalence  of  the  habit  of  public  speaking,"  says  Grote,  "that 
was  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  intellectual  eminence  of  the 
nation  generally."  Almost  all  the  prominent  Athenian  statesmen 
were  masters  of  oratory. 

^  The  oratory  of  the  Athenian  law-courts  was  not  always,  it  must  be  con- 
fessed, of  a  very  higli  order.  To  move  the  sympathies  of  the  jurors,  the 
speakers  too  often  had  recourse  to  the  low  arts  of  the  demagogue.  Yet  in 
general  these  courts  certainly  developed  a  popular  taste  and  aptitude  for  pub- 
lic speaking. 


322  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

Themistocles  and  Pericles.  —  We  have  already  become  ac- 
quainted with  Themistocles  and  Pericles  as  statesmen  and  leaders 
of  Athenian  affairs  during  the  most  stirring  period  of  Athens'  his- 
tory. They  both  were  also  great  orators,  though  they  are  not 
generally  classed  with  the  orators  of  Greece/  and  to  that  fact  were 
largely,  if  not  chiefly,  indebted  for  their  power  and  influence. 
Thucydides  has  preserved  the  oration  delivered  by  Pericles  in 
commemoration  of  those  who  fell  in  the  first  year  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War.^  It  is  an  incomparable  picture  of  the  beauty  and 
glory  of  Athens  at  the  zenith  of  her  power,  and  has  been  pro- 
nounced one  of  the  finest  productions  of  antiquity.  The  language 
of  the  address,  as  we  have  it,  is  the  historian's,  but  the  sentiments 
are  doubtless  those  of  the  great  statesman.  It  was  the  habit  of 
Thucydides  to  put  speeches  into  the  mouths  of  his  characters. 

Demosthenes  and  -^schines.  —  It  has  been  the  fortune  of  De- 
mosthenes (385-322  B.C.)  to  have  his  name  become  throughout 
the  world  the  synonym  of  eloquence.  The  labors  and  struggles 
by  which,  according  to  tradition,  he  achieved  excellence  in  his  art 
are  held  up  anew  to  each  generation  of  youth  as  guides  of  the 
path  to  success.  His  first  address  before  the  public  assembly  was 
a  complete  failure,  owing  to  defects  of  voice  and  manner.  With 
indomitable  will  he  set  himself  to  the  task  of  correcting  these. 
He  shut  himself  ujd  in  a  cave,  and  gave  himself  to  the  diligent 
study  of  Thucydides.  That  he  might  not  be  tempted  to  spend 
his  time  in  society,  he  rendered  his  appearance  ridiculous  by  shav- 
ing one  side  of  his  head.     To  correct  a  stammering  utterance,  he 

1  Antiphon  (480-411  B.C.)  was  regarded  by  the  Greeks  as  the  first  of 
the  ten  Athenian  orators.  Lysias  (458-?378  B.C.),  Isocrates  (436-338  B.C.), 
and  Isaeus  (b.  about  420  B.C.)  were  all  noted  representatives  of  the  art  of 
political  or  forensic  oratory,  and  forerunners  of  Demosthenes.  We  should  call 
Isocrates  a  rhetorician  instead  of  an  orator,  as  his  discourses  (which  for  the  most 
part  were  written  for  others  to  deliver)  were  intended  to  be  read  rather  than 
spoken.     The  Roman  Cicero  was  his  debtor  and  imitator. 

2  "  This  custom  still  prevails  throughout  Hellas.  No  man  of  note  dies  with- 
out the  offering  of  this  last  tribute  by  his  friends  or  relatives.  Many  men 
make  the  delivery  of  these  funeral  orations  their  profession."  —  TiMAYENis. 


DEMOSTHENES  AND  ^SC NINES. 


323 


spoke  with  pebbles  in  his  mouth,  and  broke  himself  of  an  ungainly 
habit  of  shrugging  his  shoulders  by  speaking  beneath  a  suspended 
sword.  To  accustom  himself  to  the  tumult  and  interruptions  of 
the  public  assembly,  he  declaimed  upon  the  noisiest  sea-shore. 


DEMOSTHENES. 


These  are  some  of  the  many  stories  told  of  the  world's  greatest 
orator.  There  is  doubtless  this  much  truth  in  them  at  least  — 
that  Demosthenes  attained  success,  in  spite  of  great  discourage- 


324  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

ments,  by  persevering  and  laborious  effort.  It  is  certain  that  he 
was  a  most  diligent  student  of  Thucydides,  whose  great  history  he 
is  said  to  have  known  by  heart.  More  than  sixty  of  his  orations 
have  been  preserved.  "  Of  all  human  productions  they  present 
to  us  the  models  which  approach  the  nearest  to  perfection." 

The  latter  part  of  the  life  of  Demosthenes  is  intertwined  with 
that  of  another  and  rival  Athenian  orator,  ^schines.  For  his 
services  to  the  state,  the  Athenians  proposed  to  award  to  Demos- 
thenes a  crown  of  gold,  ^schines  opposed  this.  All  Athens 
and  strangers  from  far  and  near  gathered  in  the  Agora,  to  hear 
the  rival  orators ;  for  every  matter  at  Athens  was  decided  by  a 
great  debate.  Demosthenes  made  the  grandest  effort  of  his  life. 
His  address,  known  as  the  "  Oration  on  the  Crown,"  has  been 
declared  to  be  "  the  most  polished  and  powerful  effort  of  human 
oratory."  ^schines  was  completely  crushed,  and  was  sent  into 
exile,  and  became  a  teacher  of  oratory  at  Rhodes. 

He  is  said  to  have  once  gathered  his  disciples  about  him,  and 
to  have  read  to  them  the  oration  of  Demosthenes  that  had  proved 
so  fatal  to  himself.  Carried  away  by  the  torrent  of  its  eloquence, 
his  pupils,  unable  to  restrain  their  enthusiasm,  burst  into  applause. 
"  Ah  !  "  said  ^schines,  who  seemed  to  find  solace  in  the  fact  that 
his  defeat  had  been  at  the  hands  of  so  worthy  an  antagonist, 
"  you  should  have  heard  the  wild  beast  himself  !  " 

Respecting  the  orations  (Phihppics)  of  Demosthenes  against 
Philip  of  Macedon,  and  the  death  of  the  eloquent  patriot,  we  have 
already  spoken  (see  pp.  266,  279). 

IV.   The  x\lexandrian  Age  (300-146  B.C.) 

Character  of  the  Literature. — The  Alexandrian  period  of  Greek 
Hterature  embraces  the  time  between  the  break-up  of  Alexander's 
empire  and  the  conquest  of  Greece  by  Rome  (300-146  B.C.). 
During  this  period  Alexandria  in  Egypt  was  the  center  of  ht- 
erary  activity,  hence  the  term  Alexandrian,  applied  to  the  liter- 
ature of  the  age.     The  great  museum  and  library  of  the  Ptolemies 


WORKS  AND   WRITERS.  325 

afforded  in  that  capital  such  facihties  for  students  and  authors  as 
existed  in  no  other  city  in  the  world. 

But  the  creative  age  of  Greek  Hterature  was  over.  With  the 
loss  of  poUtical  liberty,  literature  was  cut  off  from  its  sources  of 
inspiration.  Consequently,  the  Alexandrian  literature  lacked  fresh- 
ness, spontaneity,  originaUty.  It  was  imitative,  critical,  and  learned. 
The  writers  of  the  period  were  grammarians,  commentators,  and 
translators  —  in  a  word,  book- worms. 

Works  and  Writers.  —  One  of  the  most  important  literary 
undertakings  of  the  age  was  the  translation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  into  Greek.  From  the  traditional 
number  of  translators  (seventy)  the  version  is  known  as  the  Sep- 
tuagint  (Latin  for  seventy).  The  work  was  probably  begun  by 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and  was  completed  under  his  successors. 

It  was  also  during  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  that  Mane- 
tho  wrote,  from  the  monuments,  his  history  of  Egypt  (see  p.  17). 
Just  about  the  same  time  Berosus  compiled,  for  one  of  the  Seleu- 
cidae,  the  chronicles  of  Chaldaea.  We  possess  only  fragments  of 
these  works,  but  these  have  a  high  historical  value. 

Among  the  poets  of  the  period  one  name,  and  only  one,  stands 
out  clear  and  pre-eminent.  This  is  that  of  Theocritus,  a  Sicilian 
idyllist,  who  wrote  at  Alexandria  under  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 
His  idyls  are  beautiful  pictures  of  SiciHan  pastoral  Hfe. 

During  the  Alexandrian  period  science  was  cultivated  by  Greek 
scholars  with  considerable  success ;  but  the  names  most  noted  in 
this  department  will  more  properly  find  a  place  in  the  following 
chapter  on  Greek  philosophy  and  science. 

Conclusion :  Grseco-Roman  Writers.  —  After  the  Roman  con- 
quest of  Greece,  the  center  of  Greek  hterary  activity  shifted  from 
Alexandria  to  Rome.  Hence  Greek  literature  now  passes  into 
what  is  known  as  its  Graeco-Roman  Period  (146  B.C.-527  a.d.). 

The  most  noted  historical  writer  of  the  first  part  of  this  period 
was  Polybius  (about  203-121  B.C.),  who  wrote  a  history  of  the 
Roman  conquests  from  264  to  146  B.C.  His  work,  though  the 
larger  part  of  it  has  reached  us  in  a  very  mutilated  state,  is  of 


326  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

great  worth ;  for  Polybius  wrote  of  matters  that  had  become  his- 
tory in  his  own  day.  He  had  Uved  to  see  the  larger  part  of  the 
world  he  knew  absorbed  by  the  evergrowing  power  of  the  Impe- 
rial City. 

Diodorus  Siculus  (lived  under  Augustus  Csesar  at  Rome)  was 
the  author  of  a  General  History  of  the  World.  Herodotus  had 
grouped  all  his  material  about  the  struggle  between  Greece  and 
Persia,  but  Diodorus  Siculus  makes  Rome  the  centre  of  the  whole 
story.  Already  men  were  coming  to  regard  Rome  as  the  pre- 
ordained head  and  ruler  of  the  world. 

Plutarch  (b.  about  40  a.d.),  "the  prince  of  biographers,"  will 
always  live  in  literature  as  the  author  of  the  Parallel  Lives,  in 
which,  with  great  wealth  of  illustrative  anecdotes,  he  compares  or 
contrasts  Greek  and  Roman  statesmen  and  soldiers.  The  motive 
that  led  Plutarch  to  write  the  book,  as  we  may  infer  from  the  par- 
tiality which  he  displays  for  his  Grecian  heroes,  was  a  desire  "  to 
show  the  world  that  there  was  a  time  when  the  Greeks  were  supe- 
rior to  the  Romans." 


RELATION   OF  MYTHOLOGY   TO  PHILOSOPHY.        327 


CHAPTER    XII. 

GREEK   PHILOSOPHY   AND   SCIENCE. 

Relation  of  Mythology  to  Philosophy.  —  Philosophy  has  been 
very  aptly  defined  as  mythology  grown  old  and  wise.  Grecian 
mythology  did  not  become  sufficiently  wise  to  be  called  philos- 
ophy until  the  sixth  century  B.C.  About  that  time  the  Greeks 
began  to  think  and  to  inquire  in  a  philosophical  manner  respect- 
ing the  phenomena  and  laws  of  the  universe  of  mind  and  matter, 
giving  the  most  attention  at  first,  however,  to  the  physical  world. 
Having  once  entered  upon  this  path,  the  Greek  race  reached, 
almost  at  a  bound,  the  loftiest  heights  of  philosophical  specu- 
lation. 

The  Use  of  Verse  in  Philosophy.  —  All  the  earlier  Greek  phi- 
losophers were  poet-philosophers;  that  is,  they  conveyed  their 
instruction  in  verse,  "  dragging  the  hexameter,"  as  one  figures  it, 
"along  the  pathway  of  their  argument  upon  the  entities,  like  a 
pompous  sacrificial  vestment."  Herachtus  (about  500  B.C.)  was 
the  first  prominent  thinker  to  employ  prose  in  philosophical  dis- 
cussions. As  a  consequence  of  his  innovation,  he  failed  to  be 
understood,  and  his  would-be  disciples  were  out  of  patience  with 
him  because  he  did  not  philosophize  to  them  in  the  usual  way. 

The  Seven  Sages  ;  the  Forerunners.  — About  the  sixth  century 
B.C.  there  lived  and  taught  in  different  parts  of  Hellas  many  phi- 
losophers of  real  or  reputed  originality  and  wisdom.  Among  these 
were  seven  men,  called  the  "  Seven  Sages,"  who  held  the  place  of 
pre-eminence.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the 
World,  ancient  writers  were  not  always  agreed  as  to  what  names 
should  be  accorded  the  honor  of  enrollment  in  the  sacred  number. 
Thales,  Solon,  Periander,  Cleobulus,  Chilo,  Bias,  and  Pittacus  are, 
however,  usually  reckoned   as   the  Seven  Wise  Men.     To   them 


328  GREEK  PHILOSOPHY  AND   SCIENCE. 

belongs  the  distinction  of  having  first  aroused  the  Greek  intellect 
to  philosophical  thought.  The  wise  sayings  —  such  as  "  Know 
thyself"  and  "Nothing  in  excess"  —  attributed  to  them,  are 
beyond  number. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  several  of  the  sages  were  tyrants  or 
lawgivers.  This  is  not  a  mere  coincidence ;  it  is  explained  by 
the  fact  that  participation  in  active  political  life  stirs  and  quickens 
the  intellect. 

The  ethical  maxims  and  practical  proverbs  ascribed  to  the 
sages,  while,  like  the  so-called  proverbs  of  Solomon,  they  con- 
tain a  vast  amount  of  practical  wisdom,  still  do  not  constitute 
philosophy  proper,  which  is  a  systematic  search  for  the  reason 
and  causes  of  things.  They  form  simply  the  introduction  or  prel- 
ude to  Greek  philosophy. 

The  Ionic  Philosophers.  — The  first  Greek  school  of  philosophy 
grew  up  in  the  cities  of  Ionia,  in  Asia  Minor,  where  almost  all 
forms  of  Hellenic  culture  seem  to  have  had  their  beginning.  The 
founder  of  the  system  was  Thales  of  Miletus  (about  640-550  B.C.), 
who  was  followed  by  Anaximander,  Anaximenes,  and  Heraclitus. 

One  tenet  held  in  common  by  all  these  philosophers  was  that 
matter  and  mind  are  inseparable ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  all 
matter  is  animate.  They  never  thought  of  the  soul  as  something 
distinct  and  separable  from  matter,  as  we  do.  Even  the  shade  in 
Hades  was  conceived  as  having  a  body  in  every  respect  like  that 
the  soul  possessed  in  the  earthly  life,  only  it  was  composed  of  a 
subtler  substance.  This  conception  of  matter  as  being  alive  will 
help  us  to  understand  Greek  mythology,  which,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, endowed  trees,  rivers,  springs,  clouds,  the  planets,  all  phy- 
sical objects  indeed,  with  intelligence  and  will. 

This  sensate  matter  the  philosophers  held  to  be  eternal,  regard- 
ing creation  and  annihilation  as  both  ahke  impossible. 

But  this  animated  matter  appeared  under  four  forms  —  fire,  air, 
water,    and   earth,    the   well-known   ''four   elements."^      Out   of 

1  At  first  the  elements  numbered  only  three,  —  air,  water,  and  earth,  —  fire 
being  regarded  as  simply  a  kind  of  refined  air.  These  elements  of  the  ancient 
philosophers  answer  to  the  seventy  or  more  elements  of  modern  chemistry. 


PYTHAGORAS.  329 

these  four  elements  all  things  in  heaven  and  earth  were  made. 
But  the  philosophers  differed  as  to  which  of  the  four  elements 
was  the  original  principle,  that  is,  the  one  from  which  all  the 
others  were  derived ;  for  the  Greek  mind  could  not  rest  until 
it  had  found  unity.  Thales  believed  water  to  be  the  first  prin- 
ciple ;  Anaximenes  urged  that  it  was  air ;  while  Heraclitus  taught 
that  it  was  fire.^ 

From  the  original  element  all  the  others  were  supposed  to  be 
derived  by  a  process  of  rarefaction  and  condensation.  (This 
notion  is  something  like  the  modern  theory  of  astronomical  evo- 
lution, which,  from  an  original  infinitely  expanded  gaseous  nebula, 
produces  by  successive  condensations  the  air,  the  water,  and  the 
solid  rock  of  the  various  planets.)  Rain  was  simply  condensed 
air.  The  wood  and  flesh  of  the  sacrifice,  when  consumed  upon 
the  altar,  were  merely  transformed  into  fire  (ether),  which  seeking 
its  own,  naturally  mounted  to  its  native  sphere  —  the  empyrean. 
This  philosophical  notion  helps  us  to  understand  the  fundamental 
idea  of  the  ancient  sacrifices.  The  gods  were  pleased  with  the 
offerings,  because  these  being  converted  into  flame  or  ether, 
could  be  actually  partaken  of  as  food  by  the  celestials. 

Pythagoras.  —  Pythagoras  (about  580-500  b.c.)  was  bom  on  the 
island  of  Samos,  whence  his  title  of  "  Samian  Sage."  Probable 
tradition  says  that  he  spent  many  years  of  his  early  life  in  Egypt, 
where,  being  admitted,  through  the  favor  and  influence  of  King 
Amasis,  to  the  sacred  colleges  of  the  priests,  he  became  versed  in 
all  the  mysteries  of  the  Egyptians.  He  returned  to  Greece  with  a 
great  reputation,  and  finally  settled  at  Croton,  in  Italy.  Here 
he  gathered  about  him  a  renowned  school,  or  society,  composed  of 
six  hundred  companions,  all  selected  with  special  regard  to  their 
capacity  to  assimilate  his  peculiar  doctrines. 

Like  many  another  ancient  philosopher,  Pythagoras  sought  to 

1  By  the  term  fire  the  ancient  philosophers  meant  about  what  we  under- 
stand by  the  term  ether  (which  comes  from  the  Greek  word  aideip,  meaning 
"to  burn").  The  ether  or  fire  formed  a  sphere  above  the  air,  ensphering  it 
just  as  it  in  turn  enspheres  the  earth. 


330  GREEK  PHILOSOPHY  AND   SCIENCE. 

increase  the  reverence  of  his  disciples  for  himself  by  peculiarities 
of  dress  and  manner.  His  uncut  hair  and  beard  flowed  down 
upon  his  shoulders  and  over  his  breast.  He  never  smiled.  His 
dress  was  a  white  robe,  with  a  golden  crown.  For  the  first  years 
of  their  novitiate,  his  pupils  were  not  allowed  to  look  upon  their 
master.  They  listened  to  his  lectures  from  behind  a  curtain. 
Ipse  dixit,  "he  himself  said  so,"  was  the  only  argument  they  must 
employ  in  debate.  It  is  to  Pythagoras  that  we  are  indebted  for 
the  word  philosopher.  Being  asked  of  what  he  was  master,  he 
replied  that  he  was  simply  a  "  philosopher,"  that  is,  a  "  lover  of 
wisdom." 

Pythagoras  held  views  of  the  solar  system  that  anticipated  by 
two  thousand  years  those  of  Copernicus  and  his  school.  He 
taught,  only  to  his  most  select  pupils  however,  that  the  earth  is  a 
sphere ;  and  that,  like  the  other  planets,  it  revolves  about  a  cen- 
tral globe  of  fire.  From  him  comes  the  pretty  conceit  of  the 
"  music  of  the  spheres."  He  imagined  that  the  heavenly  spheres, 
by  their  swift,  rolling  motions,  produced  musical  notes,  which  united 
in  a  celestial  melody,  too  refined  for  human  ears.  Music  held  an 
important  place  in  his  system  of  philosophy. 

He  taught  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls,  an  idea 
he  had  doubtless  brought  from  Egypt.  Because  of  this  belief  the 
Pythagoreans  were  strict  vegetarians,  abstaining  religiously  from 
the  use  of  all  animal  food. 

Anaxagoras.  —  Anaxagoras  (499-427  b.c.)  was  the  first  Greek 
philosopher  who  made  mind,  instead  of  necessity  or  chance,  the 
arranging  and  harmonizing  force  of  the  universe.  "  Reason  rules 
the  world"  was  his  first  maxim.  This  proposition,  which  makes 
mind  and  matter  two  distinct  things,  and  mind  the  fashioner  of 
matter,  marks  a  turning-point  in  Greek  philosophy.  It  based  it 
upon  the  same  fundamental  conceptions  as  that  upon  which  the 
Hebrew  philosophy  of  the  world  rested,  and  prepared  the  way  for 
the  union,  four  centuries  later,  of  these  two  systems  of  thought,  at 
Alexandria  (see  p.  340). 

Anaxagoras  was  the  teacher  in  philosophy  of  Pericles,  and  it  is 


EMPEDOCLES  AND  DEMOCRITUS.  331 

certain  that  that  statesman  was  greatly  influenced  by  the  Hberal 
views  of  the  philosopher;  for  in  his  general  conceptions  of  the 
universe,  Anaxagoras  was  far  in  advance  of  his  age.  He  ventured 
to  believe  that  the  moon  was  somewhat  like  the  earth,  and  in- 
habited ;  and  taught  that  the  sun  was  not  a  god,  but  a  glowing 
rock,  as  large,  probably,  as  the  Peloponnesus. 

But  for  his  audacity,  the  philosopher  suffered  the  fate  of  Galileo 
in  a  later  age  ;  he  was  charged  with  impiety  and  exiled.  Yet  this 
did  not  disturb  the  serenity  of  his  mind.  In  banishment  he  said, 
"  It  is  not  I  who  have  lost  the  Athenians,  but  the  Athenians  who 
have  lost  me." 

Empedocles  and  Democritus.  —  In  the  teachings  of  Empedocles 
(about  492-432  B.C.)  and  Democritus  (about  460-370  B.C.)  we 
meet  with  many  speculations  respecting  the  constitution  of  matter 
and  the  origin  of  things  which  are  startlingly  similar  to  some  of 
the  doctrines  held  by  modern  scientists. 

Empedocles  was  an  evolutionist.  He  said,  "  Since  the  higher 
forms  of  life  can  only  arise  out  of  the  lower,  these  latter  must  be 
regarded  as  the  lower  stages  through  which  the  former  must  pass." 
In  this  conclusion  Empedocles  anticipated  modern  evolutionists 
twenty  centuries ;  but  then  he  failed  to  point  out  the  law  (natural 
selection)  through  the  operations  of  which  the  transformation 
takes  place,  and  so  his  happy  guess  as  to  the  "  origin  of  species  " 
remained  only  a  guess. 

Democritus,  in  his  theory  of  atoms,  made  a  very  close  approach 
in  some  respects  to  the  views  of  modem  physicists  regarding  the 
constitution  of  matter  and  the  formation  of  the  worlds.  He  con- 
ceived all  things,  including  the  soul,  to  be  composed  of  invisible, 
uncreated  atom.s,  all  alike  in  quality,  but  differing  in  form  and 
combination.  Respecting  the  formation  of  the  world  from  the 
original  chaos  of  atoms,  he  held  a  theory  that  had  points  of  simi- 
larity to  the  modem  nebular  hypothesis. 

The  Sophists.  —  The  Sophists,  of  whom  the  most  noted  were 
Protagoras,  Gorgias,  and  Prodicus,  were  a  class  of  philosophers  or 
teachers  who  gave  instruction  in  rhetoric  and  the  art  of  disputa- 


332  GREEK  PHILOSOPHY  AND   SCIENCE. 

tion.  They  travelled  about  from  city  to  city,  and,  contrary  to  the 
usual  custom  of  the  Greek  philosophers,  took  fees  from  their 
pupils.  They  were  shallow  but  brilliant  men,  caring  more  for  the 
dress  in  which  the  thought  was  arrayed  than  for  the  thought 
itself,  more  for  victory  than  for  truth ;  and  some  of  them  incul- 
cated a  selfish  morality,  placing  expediency  before  right.  The 
better  philosophers  of  the  time  despised  them,  and  applied  to 
them  many  harsh  epithets,  taunting  them  with  selling  wisdom,  and 
accusing  them  of  boasting  that  they  could  "  make  the  worse  ap- 
pear the  better  reason." 

But  this  latter  accusation  was  unjust.  What  the  Sophists,  among 
other  things  conducive  to  success  in  life,  really  taught  the  people 
was  the  art  of  conducting  their  own  cases  before  the  great  citizen- 
juries,  where  every  man  was  forced  to  be  his  own  advocate.  That 
their  pupils  often  employed  the  art  in  making  the  unjust  appear 
the  just  cause,  there  is  no  doubt ;  but  the  Sophists  should  hardly 
be  held  responsible  for  this  abuse  of  the  art  they  taught.  The 
lawyer's  profession  of  the  present  day  is  often  perverted,  but  not 
for  that  reason  should  the  whole  art  of  pleading  and  of  forensic 
oratory  be  left  untaught. 

Socrates.  —  Volumes  would  not  contain  what  would  be  both 
instructive  and  interesting  respecting  the  lives  and  works  of  the 
three  great  philosophers  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle.  We  can, 
however,  accord  to  each  only  a  few  words.  Of  these  three  emi- 
nent thinkers,  Socrates  (469-399  B.C.),  though  surpassed  in  grasp 
and  power  of  intellect  by  both  Plato  and  Aristotle,  has  the  firmest 
hold  upon  the  affections  of  the  world. 

Nature,  while  generous  to  the  philosopher  in  the  gifts  of  soul, 
was  unkind  to  him  in  the  matter  of  his  person.  His  face  was  ugly 
as  a  satyr's,  and  he  had  an  awkward,  shambling  walk,  so  that  he 
invited  the  shafts  of  the  comic  poets  of  his  time.  His  figure  is 
said  to  have  been  the  most  ungainly,  and  therefore  the  most  famil- 
iar, of  any  upon  the  streets  of  Athens.  He  loved  to  gather  a  little 
circle  about  him  in  the  Agora  or  in  the  streets,  and  then  to  draw 
out  his  listeners  by  a  series  of  ingenious  questions.     His  method 


SOCRATES. 


333 


was  so  peculiar  to  himself  that  it  has  received  the  designation  of 
the  "  Socratic  dialogue."  He  has  very  happily  been  called  an  edu- 
cato?',  as  opposed  to  an  instructor.  In  the  young  men  of  his  time 
Socrates  found  many  devoted  pupils.  The  youthful  Alcibiades 
declared  that  "  he  was  forced  to  stop  his  ears  and  flee  away, 
that  he  might  not  sit  down  by  the  side  of  Socrates  and  grow  old 
in  listening." 

Socrates  was  unfortunate  in  his  do- 
mestic relations.  Xanthippe,  his  wife, 
seems  to  have  been  of  a  practical  turn 
of  mind,  and  unable  to  sympathize  with 
the  abstracted  ways  of  her  husband. 
"  Sometimes  she  threw  water  on  him  ; 
but  this  only  elicited  from  the  mild 
philosopher  the  remark  to  those  about 
him,  '■  Did  I  not  say  that  Xanthippe 
was  thundering  and  would  soon  rain?' " 

This  great  philosopher  believed  that 
the  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man, 
his  favorite  maxim  being  "  Know  Thy- 
self" ;  hence  he  is  said  to  have  brought 

philosophy  from  the  heavens  and  introduced  it  to  the  homes  of 
men. 

Socrates  held  the  Sophists  in  aversion,  and  in  opposition  to  t^eir 
selfish  expediency  taught  the  purest  system  of  morals  that  the 
world  had  yet  known,  and  which  has  been  surpassed  only  by  the 
precepts  of  the  Great  Teacher.  He  thought  himself  to  be  re- 
strained from  entering  upon  what  was  inexpedient  or  wrong,  by  a 
tutelary  spirit  (demon).  He  believed  in  the  immortality  of  the 
soul  and  in  a  Supreme  Ruler  of  the  universe,  but  sometimes  spoke 
slightingly  of  the  temples  and  the  popular  deities.  This  led  to  his 
prosecution  on  the  double  charge  of  blasphemy  and  of  corrupting 
the  Athenian  youth.  The  fact  that  Alcibiades  had  been  his  pupil 
was  used  to  prove  the  demoralizing  tendency  of  his  teachings. 
He  was  condemned  to  drink  the  fatal  hemlock.     The  night  before 


SOCRATES. 


334 


GREEK  PHILOSOPHY  AND   SCIENCE. 


his  death  he  spent  with  his  disciples,  discoursing  on  the  immor- 
tahty  of  the  soul. 

Plato.  —  Plato  (429-348  B.C.),  "the  broad-browed,"  was  a  phi- 
losopher of  noble  birth,  before  whom  in  youth  opened  a  brilliant 
career  in  the  world  of  Greek  affairs ;  but,  coming  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Socrates,  he  resolved  to  give  up  all  his  prospects  in  politics 
and  devote  himself  to  philosophy.  Upon  the  condemnation  and 
death  of  his  master  he  went  into  voluntary  exile.  In  many  lands 
he  gathered  knowledge  and  met  with  varied  experiences.     He 

visited  Sicily,  where  he  was  so  unfor- 
tunate as  to  call  upon  himself  the 
resentment  of  Dionysius,  tyrant  of 
Syracuse,  through  having  worsted 
him  in  an  argument,  and  also  by  an 
uncourtly  plainness  of  speech.  The 
king  caused  him  to  be  sold  into 
slavery  as  a  prisoner  of  war.  Being 
ransomed  by  a  friend,  he  found  his 
way  to  his  native  Athens,  and  estab- 
hshed  a  school  of  philosophy  in  the 
Academy,  a  public  garden  close  to 
j  Athens.  Here,  amid  the  disciples 
that  thronged  to  his  lectures,  he 
passed  the  greater  part  of  his  long 
hfe  —  he  died  348  B.C.,  at  the  age 
of  eighty-one  years  —  laboring  in- 
cessantly upon  the  great  works  that 
bear  his  name. 
Plato  imitated  in  his  writings  Socrates'  method  in  conversation. 
The  discourse  is  carried  on  by  questions  and  answers,  hence  the 
term  Dialogues  that  attaches  to  his  works.  He  attributes  to  his 
master,  Socrates,  much  of  the  philosophy  that  he  teaches  :  yet 
his  Dialogues  are  all  deeply  tinged  with  his  own  genius  and 
thought.  In  the  Republic  Plato  portrays  his  conception  of  an 
ideal  state.     He  was  opposed  to  the  repubhc  of  Athens,  and  his 


PLATO. 


ARISTOTLE.  335 

system,  in  some  of  its  main  features,  was  singularly  like  the  Feudal 
System  of  Medieval  Europe.  Especially  is  this  true  as  to  his 
military  aristocracy. 

The  PhcEdo  is  a  record  of  the  last  conversation  of  Socrates  with 
his  disciples  —  an  immortal  argument  for  the  immortality  of  the 

soul. 

Plato  believed  not  only  in  a  future  life  (post-existence),  but  also 
in  pre-existence ;  teaching  that  the  ideas  of  reason,  or  our  intui- 
tions, are  reminiscences  of  a  past  experience.^  Plato's  doctrines 
have  exerted  a  profound  influence  upon  all  schools  of  thought  and 
philosophies  since  his  day.  In  some  of  his  precepts  he  made  a 
close  approach  to  the  teachings  of  Christianity.  "  We  ought .  to 
become  like  God,"  he  said,  "  as  far  as  this  is  possible ;  and  to 
become  like  Him  is  to  become  holy  and  just  and  wise." 

Aristotle.  —  As  Socrates  was  surpassed  by  his  pupil  Plato,  so  in 
turn  was  Plato  excelled  by  his  disciple  Aristotle,  "  the  master  of 
those  who  know."     In  him  the  philosophical  genius  of  the  Hel- 

1  In  the  following  lines  from  Wordsworth  we  catch  a  ghmpse  of  Plato's  doc- 
trine of  pre-existence  : 

"  Our  birth  is  but  a  sleep  and  a  forgetting; 
The  soul  that  rises  with  us,  our  life's  star, 
Hath  had  elsewhere  its  setting. 

And  Cometh  from  afar: 
Not  in  entire  forgetfulness, 
Nor  yet  in  utter  nakedness, 
But  trailing  clouds  of  glory,  do  we  come 
From  God,  who  is  our  home."—  <9(f^  on  Immortality. 

And  again:  "And  but  for  our  surface  and  distracted  lives  —  lived  here  for 
the  most  part  in  the  senses  —  we  should  have  never  lost  the  consciousness  of 
our  descent  into  immortality,  nor  have  questioned  our  resurrection  and  lon- 
gevity. But  as  in  descending  all  drink  of  oblivion  —  some  more,  some  less  — 
it  happens  that  while  all  are  conscious  of  life,  by  defect  of  memory  our  recol- 
lections are  various  concerning  it;  those  discerning  most  vividly  who  have 
drunk  least  of  oblivion,  they  more  easily  recalling  the  memory  of  their  past 
existence.  Ancient  of  days,  we  hardly  are  persuaded  to  believe  that  our  souls 
are  no  older  than  our  bodies,  and  to  date  our  nativity  from  our  family  registers, 
as  if  time  and  space  could  chronicle  the  periods  of  the  immortal  mind  by  its 
advent  into  the  flesh  and  decease  out  of  it."  —  AlcOTT's  Tablets,  p.  203. 


336 


GREEK  PHILOSOPHY  AND    SCIENCE. 


lenic  intellect  reached  its  culmination.  It  may  be  doubted 
whether  all  the  ages  since  his  time  have  produced  so  profound 
and  powerful  an  intellect  as  his.  He  was  born  in  the  Macedonian 
city  of  Stagira  (384  B.C.),  and  hence  is  frequently  called  the  ''  Sta- 


ARISTOTLE. 


girite."  As  in  the  case  of  Socrates,  his  personal  appearance  gave 
no  promise  of  the  philosopher.  He  had  a  small  and  contemptible 
body,  the  defects  of  which  were  made  more  noticeable  by  his  over- 


ZENO  AND    THE   STOICS.  337 

scrupulous  care  of  his  dress  and  by  the  finery  he  wore.  His 
teacher  Plato,  however,  recognized  the  genius  of  his  pupil,  and 
called  him  the  "  Mind  of  the  school."  When  he  missed  him  from 
the  class  he  would  say,  "  Intellect  is  not  here  to-day."  He  also 
called  him  "  The  Reader,"  because  he  devoured  so  eagerly  the 
works  of  the  masters. 

After  studying  for  twenty  years  in  the  school  of  Plato,  Aristotle 
became  the  preceptor  of  Alexander  the  Great.  When  Philip  in- 
vited him  to  become  the  tutor  of  his  son,  he  gracefully  compK- 
mented  the  philosopher  by  saying  in  his  letter  that  he  was  grateful 
to  the  gods  that  the  prince  was  born  in  the  same  age  with  him. 
The  royal  pupil  loved  his  great  teacher  with  an  affectionate  devo- 
tion. He  said,  "  I  owe  great  love  to  my  father  and  to  my  teacher 
Aristotle ;  to  one  for  living,  and  to  the  other  for  living  well." 
Alexander  became  the  liberal  patron  of  his  tutor,  and,  besides 
giving  him  large  sums  of  money,  aided  him  in  his  scientific  studies 
by  sending  him  large  collections  of  plants  and  animals,  gathered 
on  his  distant  expeditions. 

At  Athens  the  great  philosopher  delivered  his  lectures  while 
walking  about  beneath  the  trees  and  porticos  of  the  Lyceum ; 
hence  the  term  pei'ipateiic  (from  the  Greek  peripatein,  "  to  walk 
about")  apphed  to  his  philosophy.  He  died  322  B.C.,  the  same 
year  that  marks  the  death  of  Demosthenes. 

Among  the  productions  of  his  fertile  intellect  are  works  on 
rhetoric,  logic,  poetry,  morals  and  politics,  physics  and  meta- 
physics. For  centuries  his  works  were  studied  and  copied  and 
commented  upon  by  both  European  and  Asiatic  scholars,  in  the 
schools  of  Athens  and  Rome,  of  Alexandria  and  Constantinople. 
Until  the  time  of  Bacon  in  England,  for  nearly  two  thousand 
years,  x^ristotle  ruled  over  the  realm  of  mind  with  a  despotic  sway. 
All  teachers  and  philosophers  acknowledged  him  as  their  guide 
and  master. 

Zeno  and  the  Stoics.  —  We  are  now  approaching  the  period 
when  the  political  life  of  Hellas  was  failing,  and  was  being  fast 
overshadowed  by  the  greatness  of  Rome.     But  the  intellectual  life 


338  GREEK  PHILOSOPHY  AND    SCIENCE. 

of  the  Greek  race  was  by  no  means  eclipsed  by  the  calamity  that 
ended  its  political  existence.  For  centuries  after  that  event  the 
poets,  scholars,  and  philosophers  of  this  intellectual  people  led  a 
brilliant  career  in  the  schools  and  universities  of  the  Roman 
world. 

From  among  all  the  philosophers  of  this  long  period,  we  can 
select  for  brief  mention  only  a  few.  And  first  we  shall  speak  of 
Zeno  and  Epicurus,  who  are  noted  as  founders  of  schools  of  phi- 
losophy that  exerted  a  vast  influence  upon  both  the  thought  and 
the  conduct  of  many  centuries. 

Zeno,  founder  of  the  celebrated  school  of  the  Stoics,  lived  in 
the  third  century  before  our  era  (about  362-264).  He  taught  at 
Athens  in  a  public  porch  (in  Greek,  stod),  from  which  circumstance 
comes  the  name  applied  to  his  disciples. 

The  Stoical  philosophy  was  the  outgrowth,  in  part  at  least,  of 
that  of  the  Cynics,  a  sect  of  most  rigid  and  austere  morals.  The 
typical  representative  of  this  sect  is  found  in  Diogenes,  who  lived, 
so  the  story  goes,  in  a  tub,  and  went  about  Athens  by  daylight 
with  a  lantern,  in  search,  as  he  said,  of  a  man.  The  Cynics  were 
simply  a  race  of  pagan  hermits  :  Diogenes  was  the  Simon  Stylites 
(a  noted  Christian  ascetic)  of  the  sect. 

Zeno  adopted  all  that  was  good  in  the  code  of  the  Cynics,  and, 
adding  to  this  everything  that  he  found  of  value  in  the  systems  of 
other  philosophers,  he  formed  therefrom  his  new  philosophy.  It 
became  a  favorite  system  of  thought  with  certain  classes  of  the 
Romans,  and  under  its  teachings  and  doctrines  were  nourished 
some  of  the  purest  and  loftiest  characters  produced  by  the  pagan 
world.  It  numbered  among  its  representatives,  in  later  times,  the 
illustrious  Roman  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  the  scarcely  less 
renowned  and  equally  virtuous  slave  Epictetus.  In  many  of  its 
teachings  it  anticipated  Christian  doctrines,  and  was,  in  the  philo- 
sophical world,  a  very  important  preparation  for  Christianity. 

The  Stoics  inculcated  virtue  for  the  sake  of  itself.  They  be- 
lieved —  and  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  frame  a  better  creed  — 
that ''  man's  chief  business  here  is  to  do  his  duty,"     Bodily  pain, 


EPICURUS  AND    THE   EPICUREANS.  339 

they  taught,  was  nothing  ;  and  they  schooled  themselves  to  bear 
with  perfect  composure  any  lot  that  destiny  might  appoint.  Any 
sign  of  emotion  on  account  of  calamity  was  considered  unmanly 
and  unphilosophical.  Thus,  when  told  of  the  sudden  death  of  his 
son,  the  Stoic  replied,  "  Well,  I  never  imagined  that  I  had  given 
hfe  to  an  immortal." 

Epicurus  and  the  Epicureans. —  Epicurus  (342-270  e.g.), 
who  was  a  contemporary  of  Zeno,  taught,  in  opposition  to  the 
Stoics,  that  pleasure  is  the  highest  good.  He  recommended  vir- 
tue, indeed,  but  only  as  a  means  for  the  attainment  of  pleasure  ; 
whereas  the  Stoics  made  virtue  an  end  in  itself.  In  other  words, 
Epicurus  said,  "  Be  virtuous,  because  virtue  will  bring  you  the 
greatest  amount  of  happiness  "  ;  Zeno  said,  '^  Be  virtuous,  because 
you  ought  to  be." 

Epicurus  had  many  followers  in  Greece,  and  his  doctrines  were 
eagerly  embraced  by  many  among  the  Romans  during  the  corrupt 
and  licentious  period  of  the  Roman  empire.  Many  of  these 
disciples  carried  the  doctrines  of  their  master  to  an  excess 
that  he  himself  would  have  been  the  first  to  condemn.  (There 
is  often  more  of  good  or  evil  in  a  philosophy  than  its  founder 
ever  dreams  of.)  Allowing  full  indulgence  to  every  appetite  and 
passion,  their  whole  philosophy  was  expressed  in  the  proverb, 
"  Let  us  eat  and  drink,  for  to-morrow  we  die."  No  pure  or 
exalted  life  could  be  nourished  in  the  unwholesome  atmosphere 
of  such  a  philosophy.  Epicureanism  never  produced  a  single 
great  character. 

The  Skeptics ;  Pyrrho.  —  About  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century  B.C.  skepticism  became  widespread  in  Greece.  It 
seemed  as  though  men  were  losing  faith  in  everything.  Many 
circumstances  had  worked  together  in  bringing  about  this  state  of 
universal  unbelief.  A  wider  knowledge  of  the  world  had  caused 
many  to  lose  their  faith  in  the  myths  and  legends  of  the  old 
mythologies.  The  existence  of  so  many  systems  of  philosophy 
caused  men  to  doubt  the  truth  of  any  of  them.  The  conquests 
of  Alexander,  by  bringing  the  Greek   mind  in  contact  with   the 


340  GREEK  PHILOSOPHY  AND   SCIENCE. 

Strange  Asiatic  systems  of  belief,  tended  powerfully  to  deepen  and 
confirm  this  feeling  of  bewilderment  and  uncertainty.  Many 
thoughtful  minds  were  hopelessly  asking,  "What  is  truth?" 

Pyrrho  (about  360-270  B.C.)  was  the  Greek  Thomas.  He 
doubted  everything,  and  declared  that  the  great  problems  of  the 
universe  could  not  be  solved.  It  was  the  duty  of  man,  and  the 
part  of  wisdom,  to  entertain  no  positive  judgment  on  any  matter, 
and  thus  to  ensure  serenity  and  peace  of  mind. 

The  disciples  of  Pyrrho  went  to  absurd  lengths  in  their  skepti- 
cism, some  of  them  even  saying  that  they  asserted  nothing,  not 
even  that  they  asserted  nothing.  They  doubted  whether  they 
doubted. 

The  Neo-Platonists.  —  Neo-Platonism  was  a  blending  of  Greek 
philosophy  and  Oriental  mysticism.  It  has  been  well  called  the 
"despair  of  reason,"  because  it  abandoned  all  hope  of  man's  ever 
being  able  to  attain  the  highest  knowledge  through  the  intellect, 
and  held  that  the  human  soul,  when  in  an  ecstatic  state  or  prophet- 
like trance,  received,  through  a  higher  faculty  than  reason,  in  a 
sort  of  vision,  revelations  of  divine  and  eternal  truth.  It  was 
chiefly  a  theological  philosophy ;  that  is,  it  dealt  with  the  nature 
of  God  and  his  relations  to  man.  The  centre  of  this  last  move- 
ment in  Greek  philosophical  thought  was  Alexandria  in  Egypt, 
the  meeting-place,  in  the  closing  centuries  of  the  ancient  world,  of 
the  East  and  the  West. 

Philo  the  Jew  (b.  about  30  B.C.),  who  labored  to  harmonize 
Hebrew  doctrines  with  the  teachings  of  Plato,  was  the  forerunner 
of  the  Neo-Platonists.  But  the  greatest  of  the  school  was  Ploti- 
nus  (a.d.  204-269),  who  spent  the  last  years  of  his  hfe  at  Rome, 
where  he  was  a  great  favorite.  Four  times  in  six  years,  according 
to  one  of  his  disciples,  was  he  freed  from  the  body,  and  being 
absorbed  in  the  Infinite,  saw  God,  in  ecstatic  vision. 

Conflict  between  Neo-Platonism  and  Christianity. —While 
the  Neo-Platonists  were  laboring  to  restore,  in  modified  form,  the 
ancient  Greek  philosophy  and  worship,  the  teachers  of  Christi- 
anity were  fast  winning  the  world  over  to  a  new  faith.     The  two 


SCIENCE  AMONG    THE    GREEKS.  341 

systems  came  into  deadly  antagonism.  For  a  time  the  issue  of 
the  contention  between  the  Hellenic  philosophers  and  the  Chris- 
tian Fathers  may  have  seemed  doubtful.  But  by  the  close  of 
the  third  century  a.d.  it  was  plain  that  the  majority  of  the  people 
of  the  Roman  empire,  which  now  virtually  embraced  the  world, 
were  already,  or  at  least  soon  would  be,  disciples  of  the  Christian 
teachers.  It  was  doubtless  his  persuasion  of  this  fact  that  led  the 
Roman  Emperor  Constantine  the  Great  (a.d.  306-337)  to  throw 
his  influence  on  the  side  of  the  Christian  Fathers,  and  proclaim 
Christianity  as  the  favored  religion  of  the  empire. 

Under  Julian  the  Apostate  (Roman  Emperor  a.d.  361-363;, 
who  was  an  ardent  Neo-Platonist,  the  Hellenic  philosophy  was 
restored,  and  every  effort  made  to  discredit  and  destroy  the 
Christian  faith.  With  his  death,  however,  passed  away  the  last 
good  hope  of  the  restoration  of  the  renovated  philosophy  of 
ancient  Greece.  The  gifted  and  beautiful  Hypatia,  almost  the 
last  representative  of  the  old  system  of  speculation  and  belief, 
was  torn  to  pieces  in  the  streets  of  Alexandria  by  a  mob  of  fanatic 
Christian  monks  (a.d.  415).  Finally  the  Roman  Emperor  Justin- 
ian forbade  the  pagan  philosophers  to  teach  their  doctrines  (a.d. 
529).^  This  imperial  edict  closed  forever  the  Greek  schools,  in 
which  for  more  than  a  thousand  years  the  world  had  received 
instruction  upon  the  loftiest  themes  that  can  engage  the  human 
mind.  The  Greek  philosophers,  as  living,  personal  teachers,  had 
finished  their  work ;  but  their  systems  of  thought  will  never  cease 
to  attract  and  influence  the  best  minds  of  the  race. 

Science  among  the  Greelzs. 

In  ancient  times  no  single  people  or  race  excelled  in  all  depart- 
ments of  knowledge  or  human  endeavor.  Having,  then,  seen  the 
wonderful  genius  of  the  Greek  race  for  art,  literature,  and  philoso- 
phy, we  are  prepared  to  learn  that  they  never  evinced  great  apti- 
tude for  the  more  practical  sciences.     In  art  and  literature  the 

^  See  Mediceval  and  Alodern  History,  pp.  68,  69. 


342  GREEK  PHILOSOPHY  AND  SCIENCE. 

Greeks  are  still  our  teachers ;  in  science  we  are  immeasurably 
their  superiors.  Still,  while  this  is  true,  the  contributions  of  the 
Greek  observers  to  the  physical  sciences  have  laid  us  under  no 
small  obligation  to  them.  Especially  did  the  later  Greeks  do 
much  good  and  lasting  work  in  the  mathematical  sciences. 

Some  of  those  whom  we  have  classed  as  philosophers,  Thales 
and  Anaxagoras  for  instance,  were  careful  students  of  nature,  and 
might  be  called  scientists.  The  great  philosopher  Aristotle  wrote 
some  valuable  works  on  anatomy  and  natural  history,  his  observa- 
tions being  held  in  the  highest  esteem  by  naturalists  of  the  present 
day  for  their  accuracy.  From  his  time  onward  the  sciences  were 
pursued  with  much  zeal  and  success. 

Mathematics:  Euclid  and  Archimedes.  — Alexandria,  in  Egypt, 
became  the  seat  of  the  most  celebrated  school  of  mathematics  of 
antiquity.  Here,  under  Ptolemy  Lagus,  flourished  Euclid,  the 
great  geometer,  whose  work  forms  the  basis  of  the  science  of 
geometry  as  taught  in  our  schools  at  the  present  time.  Ptolemy 
himself  was  his  pupil.  The  royal  student,  however,  seems  to  have 
disliked  the  severe  application  required  to  master  the  problems  of 
Euclid,  and  asked  his  teacher  if  there  was  not  some  easier  way. 
Euclid  replied,  "  There  is  no  royal  road  to  geometry." 

In  the  third  century  B.C.,  Syracuse,  in  Sicily,  was  the  home  of 
Archimedes,  the  greatest  mathematician  that  the  Grecian  world 
produced.  He  had  a  marvellous  genius  for  figures,  and  investi- 
gated the  abstrusest  problems  in  geometry,  mechanics,  and  the 
allied  sciences.  The  range  and  productiveness  of  his  genius  are 
shown  by  the  following  titles  to  some  of  his  works  :  On  Bodies 
Floating  in  Fluids ;  On  Centres  of  Gravity ;  On  the  Sphere  and 
the  Cylinder. 

His  acquaintance  with  the  first  subject  is  illustrated  by  the  fa- 
miliar story  that  is  told  of  the  manner  in  which  he  detected  the 
impurity  of  the  gold  in  the  crown  of  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse. 
The  king,  suspecting  that  the  gold  had  been  alloyed,  submitted 
the  article  to  Archimedes,  who  detected  the  fraud  by  means  of  the 
principle  of  specific  gravities,  which  was  suggested  to  him  while 


ASTRONOMY  AND    GEOGRAPHY.  343 

bathing.  Leaping  from  the  bath,  he  ran  through  the  corridors, 
exclaiming,  "  ^z/?'<f/^^  /  Eureka  f'  —  "I  have  fomid  it!  I  have 
found  it ! " 

His  knowledge  of  the  second  subject  and  of  the  laws  of  the 
lever  is  indicated  by  the  oft-quoted  boast  that  he  made  to  Hiero  : 
"  Give  me  a  place  to  stand,  and  I  will  move  the  world."  His 
elucidation  of  the  properties  of  the  sphere  and  cylinder  were,  even 
in  his  own  estimation,  so  important  that  he  requested  that  a  figure 
of  these  should  be  placed,  as  the  fittest  memorial  of  his  life,  upon 
his  tomb.  More  than  one  hundred  years  afterwards  Cicero  dis- 
covered and  identified  the  monument  by  means  of  these  emblems. 

During  the  siege  of  Syracuse  by  the  Romans,  Archimedes  ren- 
dered his  native  city  valuable  service  by  driving  off  or  destroying 
the  enemy's  vessels  by  means  of  ingenious  and  powerful  engines. 
The  story  of  his  setting  fire  to  the  Roman  ships  by  means  of 
mirrors  reflecting  the  sun's  rays,  is,  after  much  discussion,  allowed 
to  be  not  only  possible,  but  probable.  Archimedes  perished  in 
the  sack  of  the  city  (212  B.C.),  but  in  what  way  he  met  his  death 
is  not  known  with  certainty. 

Astronomy  and  Geography.  —  Among  ancient  Greek  astrono- 
mers and  geographers,  the  names  of  Aristarchus,  Eratosthenes, 
Hipparchus,  Strabo,  Pausanias,  and  Claudius  Ptolemy  are  distin- 
guished. 

Aristarchus  of  Samos,  who  lived  in  the  third  century  B.C.,  held 
that  the  earth  revolves  about  the  sun  as  a  fixed  center,  and  rotates 
on  its  own  axis.  He  was  the  Greek  Copernicus.  But  his  theory 
was  rejected  by  his  contemporaries  and  successors. 

Eratosthenes  (b.  about  276  B.C.)  might  be  called  an  astronomi- 
cal geographer.     His  greatest  achievement  was  the  fairly  accurate* 
determination  of  the  circumference  of  the  earth  by  means  of  the 
different  lengths  of  the  shadow  cast  by  the  midday  sun  in  Upper 
and  Lower  Egypt  at  the  time  of  the  summer  solstice. 

Hipparchus,  who  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  second 
century  B.C.,  was,  through  his  careful  observations,  the  real  founder 
of  scientific   astronomy.     He    calculated    eclipses,  observed    the 


344  GREEK  PHILOSOPHY  AND   SCIENCE. 

precession  of  the  equinoxes,  catalogued  the  stars,  and  wrote  sev- 
eral astronomical  works  of  a  really  scientific  character. 

Strabo  was  born  about  half  a  century  before  our  era.  He  trav- 
elled over  a  large  part  of  the  world,  and  describes,  as  an  eye- 
witness, the  scenery,  the  productions,  and  the  peoples  of  all  the 
countries  known  to  the  ancients. 

About  two  centuries  after  Strabo's  time,  Pausanias  wrote  his 
"Tour  of  Greece,"  a  sort  of  guide-book,  which  is  crowded  with 
invaluable  little  items  of  interest  respecting  all  the  places  best 
worth  visiting  in  Greece. 

Claudius  Ptolemy,  the  most  noted  of  ancient  astronomers,  lived 
in  Egypt  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century  after  Christ. 
His  great  reputation  is  due  not  so  much  to  his  superior  genius  as 
to  the  fortunate  circumstance  that  a  vast  work^  compiled  by  him, 
preserved  and  transmitted  to  later  times  almost  all  the  knowledge 
of  the  ancient  world  on  astronomical  and  geographical  subjects. 
In  this  way  it  has  happened  that  his  name  has  become  attached 
to  various  doctrines  and  views  respecting  the  universe,  though 
these  probably  were  not  originated  by  him.  The  phrase  Ptolemaic 
system,  however,  links  his  name  inseparably,  whether  the  honor  be 
fairly  his  or  not,  with  that  conception  of  the  solar  system  set  forth 
in  his  works,  which  continued  to  be  the  received  theory  from  his 
time  until  Copernicus  —  fourteen  centuries  later. 

Ptolemy  combated  the  theory  of  Aristarchus  in  regard  to  the 
rotation  and  revolution  of  the  earth ;  yet  he  believed  the  earth  to 
be  a  globe,  and  supported  this  view  by  exactly  the  same  argu- 
ments that  we  to-day  use  to  prove  the  doctrine. 

Medicine  and  Anatomy.  —  Hippocrates  (b.  about  460  b.c), 
the  founder  of  a  school  of  medicine  at  Cos,  did  so  much  to  eman- 
cipate the  art  of  healing  from  superstition  and  ignorance,  and  to 
make  it  a  scientific  study,  that  he  is  called  the  "  Father  of  Medi- 
cine." -     His  central  doctrine  was  that  there  are  laws  of  disease 

1  Known  to  Mediaeval  Europe  by  its  Arabian  title  Almagest,  meaning  "  the 
greatest." 

2  The  patron  god  of  medicine  was  yEsculapius. 


MEDICINE  AND   ANATOMY.  345 

as  well  as  laws  of  healthy  life.  The  works  ascribed  to  him  form 
the  basis  of  modern  medical  science. 

The  most  noted  Greek  physician  after  Hippocrates  was  Galenus 
Claudius,  or  simply  Galen  (about  a.d.  130-193).  He  wrote  a 
multitude  of  books,  which  gathered  up  all  the  medical  and  ana- 
tomical knowledge  of  his  time,  and  which  were  greatly  prized  and 
carefully  studied  by  the  medical  students  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  advance  of  the  science  of  anatomy  among  the  ancient 
Greeks  was  hindered  by  their  feelings  respecting  the  body,  which 
caused  them  to  look  with  horror  upon  its  deliberate  mutilation. 
Surprising  as  the  statement  may  appear,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that 
Aristotle,  "  the  greatest  of  all  thinkers  in  antiquity,  the  son  of  a 
physician,  especially  educated  in  physical  science,  and  well  ac- 
quainted for  the  time  with  the  dissection  of  animals,  regarded  the 
brain  as  a  lump  of  cold  substance,  quite  unfit  to  be  the  seat  and 
organ  of  the  sensus  communis}  This  important  office  he  ascribed 
rather  to  the  heart.  The  brain  he  considered  to  be  chiefly  useful 
as  the  source  of  fluids  for  lubricating  the  eyes,  etc."-  At  Alex- 
andria, however,  in  the  later  period,  under  the  influence  doubtless 
of  Egyptian  practices  in  embalming,  the  Greek  physicians  greatly 
promoted  the  knowledge  of  anatomy  not  only  by  the  dissection  of 
dead  bodies,  but  even  by  the  vivisection  of  criminals  condemned 
to  death.'^ 

1  The  thinking  faculty,  the  mind. 

^  Ladd's  Elemejtis  of  Physiological  Psychology,  p.  240. 

^  Some  practices  among  the  Greek  physicians  strike  us  as  peculiar.  The 
following  is  too  characteristically  Greek  to  be  omitted.  Plato,  in  the  Gorgias, 
tells  us  that  sometimes  the  doctor  took  a  Sophist  along  with  him  to  persuade 
the  patient  to  take  his  prescription.  Professor  Mahaffy  comments  thus  upon 
this  practice :  "  This  was  done  because  it  was  the  fashion  to  discuss  every- 
thing in  Greece,  and  people  were  not  satisfied  to  submit  silently  to  anybody's 
prescription,  either  in  law,  politics,  religion,  or  medicine." 


346  SOCIAL  LIFE   OF   THE    GREEKS. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

SOCIAL   LIFE  OF  THE  GREEKS. 

Education.  —  Education  at  Sparta,  where  it  was  chiefly  gymnas- 
tic, as  we  have  seen,  was  a  state  affair ;  but  at  Athens  and  through- 
out Greece  generally,  the  youth  were  trained  in  private  schools. 
These  schools  were  of  all  grades,  ranging  from  those  kept  by  the 
most  obscure  teachers,  who  gathered  their  pupils  in  some  recess 
of  the  street,  to  those  established  in  the  Athenian  Academy  and 
Lyceum  by  such  philosophers  as  Plato  and  Aristotle. 

It  was  only  the  boys  who  received  education.  These  Grecian 
boys.  Professor  Mahaffy  imagines,  were  "  the  most  attractive  the 
world  has  ever  seen."  At  all  events,  we  may  believe  that  they 
were  trained  more  carefully  and  dehcately  than  the  youth  among 
any  other  people  before  or  since  the  days  of  Hellenic  culture. 

In  the  nursery,  the  boy  was  taught  the  beautiful  myths  and 
stories  of  the  national  mythology  and  religion.^     At  about  seven 

1  At  the  birth  of  a  child,  many  customs  of  a  significant  character  were 
carefully  observed.  Thus  at  Sparta  the  new-born  infant  was  first  cradled  on  a 
shield,  which  symbohzed  the  martial  life  of  the  Spartan  citizen;  while  at 
Athens  the  child  was  laid  upon  a  mantle  in  which  was  wrought  the  aegis  of 
Athena,  by  which  act  was  emblemized  and  invoked  the  protection  of  that 
patron  goddess.  Infanticide  was  almost  universally  practised  throughout 
Greece.  (At  Thebes,  however,  the  exposure  of  children  was  prohibited  by 
severe  laws.)  Such  philosophers  as  Plato  and  Aristotle  saw  nothing  in  the 
custom  to  condemn.  Among  the  Spartans,  as  we  have  already  learned,  the 
state  determined  what  infants  might  be  preserved,  condemning  the  weakly  or 
ill-formed  to  be  cast  out  to  die.  At  Athens  and  in  other  states  the  right  to 
expose  his  child  was  given  to  the  father.  The  infant  was  abandoned  in  some 
desert  place,  or  left  in  some  frequented  spot  in  the  hope  that  it  might  be 
picked  up  and  cared  for.  Greek  literature,  like  that  of  every  other  people  of 
antiquity,  is  filled  with  stories  and  dramas  all  turning  upon  points  afforded 


EDUCATION. 


347 


he  entered  school,  being  led  to  and  from  the  place  of  training  by 
an  old  slave,  who  bore  the  name  of  pedagogue,  which  in  Greek 
means  a  guide  or  leader  of  boys  —  not  a  teacher.  His  studies 
were  grammar,  music,  and  gymnastics,  the  aim  of  the  course  being 
to  secure  a  symmetrical  development  of  mind  and  body  alike. 

Grammar  included  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic ;  music, 
which  embraced  a  wide  range  of  mental  accomplishments,  trained 
the  boy  to  appreciate  the  masterpieces  of  the  great  poets,  to  con- 
tribute his  part   to   the    musical  diversions  of  private    entertain- 


A    GREEK    SCHOOL.       (After  a  vase-painting.) 

ments,  and  to  join  in  the  sacred  choruses  and  in  the  psean  of 
the  battle-field.  The  exercises  of  the  palestrae  and  the  gymnasia 
trained  him  for  the  Olympic  contests,  or  for  those  sterner  hand- 
to-hand  battle-struggles,  in  which  so  much  depended  upon  per- 
sonal strength  and  dexterity. 

Upon  reaching  maturity,  the  youth  was  enrolled  in  the  list  of 
citizens.  But  his  graduation  from  school  was  his  "commence- 
ment "  in  a  much  more  real  sense  than  with  the  average  modern 

by  this  common  practice.  The  career  of  Sargon  of  Agade,  of  Cyrus  the  Great 
of  Persia,  of  the  Hebrew  Moses,  of  CEdipus  of  Thebes,  of  Romulus  and  Remus 
of  Roman  legend,  and  a  hundred  others,  are  all  prefaced  by  the  same  story  of 
exposure  and  fortunate  rescue. 


348  SOCIAL  LIFE    OF   THE    GREEKS. 

graduate.  Never  was  there  a  people  besides  the  Greeks  whose 
daily  life  was  so  emphatically  a  discipline  in  liberal  culture.  The 
schools  of  the  philosophers,  the  debates  of  the  popular  assembly, 
the  practice  of  the  law-courts,  the  masterpieces  of  a  divine  art, 
the  religious  processions,  the  representations  of  an  unrivalled 
stage,  the  Panhellenic  games  —  all  these  were  splendid  and  effi- 
cient educational  agencies,  which  produced  and  maintained  a 
standard  of  average  intelligence  and  culture  among  the  citizens 
of  the  Greek  cities  that  probably  has  never  been  attained  among 
any  other  people  on  the  earth.  Freeman,  quoted  approvingly  by 
Mahaffy,  says  that  "  the  average  intelligence  of  the  assembled 
Athenian  citizens  was  higher  than  that  of  our  [the  English] 
House  of  Commons." 

Social  Position  of  Woman.  —  Although  there  are  in  Greek 
literature  some  exquisitely  beautiful  portraitures  of  ideal  woman- 
hood, still  the  general  tone  of  the  literature  betrays  a  deep  con- 
tempt for  woman,  which  Symonds  regards  as  '^  the  greatest  social 
blot  upon  the  brilliant  but  imperfect  civiHzation  of  the  Greeks." 
The  poets  are  particularly  sarcastic.  Simonides  winds  up  a  bitter 
invective  against  women  in  general,  in  which  he  compares  differ- 
ent classes  of  them  to  various  despicable  animals,  by  saying, 
"Zeus  made  this  supreme  evil  —  women:  even  though  they 
seem  to  be  of  good,  when  one  has  got  one,  she  becomes  a 
plague."  And  another  poet  (Hipponax)  says,  "  A  woman  gives 
two  days  of  happiness  to  man  —  her  bridal  and  her  burial." 
Plato  does  not  entertain  a  high  opinion  of  the  sex,  while  Thu- 
cydides  quotes  with  seeming  approval  the  Greek  proverb,  —  "That 
woman  is  best  who  is  least  spoken  of  among  men,  whether  for 
good  or  for  evil." 

The  myth  of  Pandora  seems  to  have  sprung  up  out  of  just  such 
sentiments  as  the  above.  This  fable  evidently  reacted  upon  the 
feelings  and  practices  of  the  Greeks,  just  as  the  Oriental  story  of 
the  Fall  of  Man  through  the  temptation  of  Eve  contributed  to 
the  giving  of  woman  a  position  of  inferiority  and  subjection  in  the 
early  Christian  church. 


FRIENDSHIP  AMONG    THE    GREEKS.  349 

This  unworthy  conception  of  woman  of  course  consigned  her  to 
a  narrow  and  inferior  place  in  the  Greek  home.  Her  position 
may  be  defined  as  being  about  halfway  between  Oriental  seclu- 
sion and  modern  or  Western  freedom.  Her  main  duties  were  to 
cook  and  spin,  and  to  oversee  the  domestic  slaves,  of  whom  she 
herself  was  practically  one.  In  the  fashionable  society  of  Ionian 
cities,  she  was  seldom  allowed  to  appear  in  public,  or  to  meet, 
even  in  her  own  house,  the  male  friends  of  her  husband.  In 
Sparta,  however,  and  in  Dorian  states  generally,  she  was  accorded 
unusual  freedom,  and  was  a  really  important  factor  in  society. 

The  seclusion  and  neglect  to  which  women  were  condemned 
in  Ionian  communities,  in  contrast  with  the  great  liberty  enjoyed 
by  women  in  the  Dorian  cities,  is  doubtless  to  be  attributed,  in 
part  at  least,  to  the  influence  upon  the  former  of  Asiatic  custom, 
entering  Greece  through  Ionia. 

The  low  position  generally  assigned  the  wife  in  the  home  had  a 
most  disastrous  effect  upon  Greek  morals.  She  could  exert  no 
such  elevating  or  refining  influence  as  she  casts  over  the  modern 
home.  The  men  were  led  to  seek  social  and  intellectual  sym- 
pathy and  companionship  outside  the  family  circle,  among  a  class 
of  talented  and  often  highly  cultured  women,  known  as  Hetairae. 
As  the  most  noted  and  brilliant  representative  of  this  class  stands 
Aspasia,  the  friend  of  Pericles.  Her  conversation  possessed  at- 
traction for  the  most  prominent  and  accomplished  men  of  Athens, 
such  persons  as  Socrates  and  Anaxagoras  often  assembling  at  her 
house.  Yet  the  influence  of  this  class  was  most  harmful  to  social 
morality,  so  that  to  the  degradation  of  woman  in  the  home  may 
be  traced  the  source  of  the  most  serious  stain  that  rests  upon 
Greek  civilization. 

Friendship  among  the  Greeks.  —  From  speaking  of  the  infe- 
rior rank  assigned  woman  in  the  Greek  home,  we  are  led  by  a 
natural  transition  to  speak  of  Greek  friendship  between  men. 
While  it  seems  quite  certain  that  that  romantic  sentiment  to  which 
we  give  distinctively  the  name  of  love,  was  not  the  universal  and 
absorbing  passion  among  the  Greeks   that   it  is  among  modern 


350  SOCIAL   LIFE    OF   THE    GREEKS. 

civilized  peoples,  it  is  equally  certain  that  the  ancient  Greeks 
possessed  a  capacity  for  friendship  between  man  and  man  such  as 
is  rarely  or  never  seen  among  the  men  of  modern  times.  It 
would  scarcely  be  incorrect  to  say  that  the  Greek  men  "  fell  in 
love  "  with  each  other.  An  ardent  and  romantic  attachment 
sprang  up  between  companions,  which  possessed  all  the  higher 
elements  of  that  chivalrous  sentiment  which  the  modern  man 
seems  capable  of  entertaining  only  for  one  of  the  opposite  sex. 
"The  chivalry  of  Hellas  found  its  motive  force,"  writes  Symonds, 
''  in  friendship  rather  than  in  the  love  of  woman.  . .  .  Fraternity 
in  arms  played  for  the  Greek  race  the  same  part  as  the  idealiza- 
tion of  woman  for  the  knighthood  of  Feudal  Europe." 

Greek  literature  and  history  afford  innumerable  instances  of 
this  wonderful  and  happy  capacity  of  the  Greeks  for  friendship. 
The  memory  easily  recalls  the  Homeric  picture  of  the  friendship 
between  Achilles  and  Patroclus  ;  the  attachment,  stronger  than 
death,  between  Damon  and  Pythias ;  the  friendship  of  the  patriot 
heroes  Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas,  of  Alexander  and  Hephaes- 
tion ;  and  the  attachments  that  united,  in  bonds  dissolvable  only 
by  death,  the  members  of  the  Sacred  Band  of  Thebes. 

Theatrical  Entertainments.  —  Among  the  ancient  Greeks  the 
theatre  was  a  state  establishment,  "a  part  of  the  constitution." 
This  arose  from  the  religious  origin  and  character  of  the  drama 
(see  p.  311),  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  popular  worship  being 
the  care  and  concern  of  the  state.  Theatrical  performances,  be- 
ing religious  acts,  were  presented  only  during  religious  festivals, 
—  certain  festivals  observed  in  honor  of  Dionysus,  —  and  were 
attended  by  all  classes,  rich  and  poor,  men,  women,  and  children. 
The  women,  however,  except  the  Hetairse,  were,  it  would  seem, 
permitted  to  witness  tragedies  only;  the  comic  stage  was  too 
gross  to  allow  of  their  presence. 

The  upper  ranges  of  seats  in  the  theatre  were  reserved  for  the 
women ;  the  chairs  bordering  the  orchestra  were  for  the  officers 
of  the  state  and  other  persons  of  distinction ;  while  the  interven- 
ing tiers  of  seats  were  occupied  by  the  general  audience.     The 


THEA  TRICAL   ENTER  TAINMENTS, 


351 


spectators  sat  under  the  open  sky ;  and  the  pieces  followed  one 
after  the  other  in  close  succession  from  early  morning  till  night- 
fall. 

There  were  companies  of  players  who  strolled  about  the  coun- 
try, just  as  the  English  actors  of  Shakespeare's  time  were  wont  to 
do.  Such  bands  often  accompanied  the  army  to  the  field  in  time 
of  war.  While  the  better  class  of  actors  were  highly  honored, 
ordinary  players  were  held  in  very  low  es- 
teem, in  which  matter  the  Greek  stage 
presents  another  parallel  to  that  of  England 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  And  as  in  the 
Elizabethan  age  the  writers  of  plays  were 
frequently  also  performers,  so  in  Greece, 
particularly  during  the  early  period  of  the 
drama,  the  author  often  became  an  actor, 
and  assisted  in  the  presentation  of  his  own 
pieces.  Still  another  parallel  is  found  in  the 
fact  that  the  female  parts  in  the  Greek 
dramas,  as  in  the  early  English  theatre, 
were  taken  by  men. 

The  stage  machinery  of  the  Greek  theatre 
and  the  costumes  of  the  actors  were  ingen- 
ious and  elaborate.  There  were  movable 
scenes  ;  trap-doors  and  various  machines  for 
introducing  the  infernal  and  celestial  di- 
vinities and  swinging  them  through  the  air ; 
contrivances  for  imitating  all  the  familiar 
sounds  of  the  country,  the  roar  and  crash  of 
storm  and  thunder,  and  all  the  noises  that 

are  counterfeited  on  the  modern  stage.  The  tragic  actor  increased 
his  height  and  size  by  wearing  thick-soled  buskins,  an  enormous 
mask,  and  padded  garments.  The  actor  in  comedy  wore  thin- 
soled  slippers,  or  socks.  The  sock  being  thus  a  characteristic 
part  of  the  make-up  of  the  ancient  comic  actor,  and  the  buskin 
that  of  the  tragic  actor,  these  foot-coverings  have  come  to  be  used 


GREEK   TRAGIC    FIGURE. 


352  SOCIAL   LIFE    OF  THE    GREEKS. 

as  the  symbols  respectively  of  comedy  and  tragedy,  as   in  the 
familiar  lines  of  Dryden  :  — 

"  Great  Fletcher  never  treads  in  buskins  here, 
Nor  greater  Jonson  dares  in  socks  appear." 

The  chorus  were  often  gorgeously  and  fantastically  costumed. 
Thus  in  the  play  of  the  "Birds  "  by  Aristophanes,  they  were  arrayed 
each  to  represent  some  gay-plumaged  bird ;  while  in  the  "Clouds," 
by  the  same  poet,  to  counterfeit  clouds  they  appeared  in  the 
midst  of  fleecy  drapery,  and  enveloped  in  the  smoke  of  incense. 
By  similar  devices  of  drapery  and  masks,  all  the  divinities  and 
monsters  known  to  Greek  mythology  were  brought  before  the 
spectators. 

The  expenses  of  the  choruses  were  defrayed  by  rich  citizens, 
who  at  Athens  were  chosen  by  the  different  tribes  in  turn.  The 
person  elected  to  provide  the  chorus  was  known  as  the  choragus. 
He  often  spent  large  sums  in  competition  with  other  leaders. 
The  choragus  who  presented  the  best  chorus  was  awarded  a  prize, 
and  was  allowed  the  privilege  of  erecting,  at  his  own  expense,  a 
monument  in  commemoration  of  his  victory  (see  p.  293,  choragic 
monument  of  Lysicrates) . 

The  theatre  exerted  a  great  influence  upon  Greek  life.  It  per- 
formed for  ancient  Greek  society  somewhat  the  same  service  as 
that  rendered  to  modern  society  by  the  pulpit  and  the  press. 
During  the  best  days  of  Hellas  the  frequent  rehearsal  upon  the 
stage  of  the  chief  incidents  in  the  lives  of  the  gods  and  the  heroes 
served  to  deepen  and  strengthen  the  religious  faith  of  the  people ; 
and  later,  when  with  the  Macedonian  the  days  of  decline  came,  it 
was  one  of  the  chief  agents  in  the  diffusion  of  Greek  literary  cul- 
ture over  the  world.  Theatres  arose  everywhere,  and  it  was  chiefly 
through  the  popular  representations  of  the  stage  that  a  knowledge 
of  the  best  productions  of  Greek  literature  was  imparted  to  the 
mixed  population  of  the  Hellenistic  cities  of  Egypt  and  Western 
Asia,  and  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  cities  of  Italy  as  well. 

Banquets    and    Symposia.  —  Banquets    and    drinking- parties 


BANQUETS  AND   SYMPOSIA.  353 

among  the  Greeks  possessed  some  features  which  set  them  apart 
from  similar  entertainment  among  other  people. 

The  banquet  proper  was  partaken,  in  later  times,  by  the  guest 
in  a  reclining  position,  upon  couches  or  divans,  arranged  about 
the  table  in  the  Oriental  manner.  After  the  usual  courses,  a  liba- 
tion was  poured  out  and  a  hymn  sung  in  honor  of  the  gods,  and 
then  followed  that  characteristic  part  of  the  entertainment  known 
as  the  symposmjji. 

The  symposium  was  "  the  intellectual  side  of  the  feast."  It 
consisted  of  general  conversation,  riddles,  and  convivial  songs  ren- 
dered to  the  accompaniment  of  the  lyre  passed  from  hand  to 
hand.  Generally  professional  singers  and  musicians,  dancing-girls, 
jugglers,  and  jesters,  w^ere  called  in  to  contribute  to  the  merry- 
making. All  the  while  the  wine-bowl  circulated  freely,  the  rule 
being  that  a  man  might  drink  ''  as  much  as  he  could  carry  home 
without  a  guide, — unless  he  were  far  gone  in  years."  Here  also 
the  Greeks  applied  their  maxim,  "  Never  too  much."  Besotted 
drunkenness,  though  by  no  means  unknown  in  Greece,  was  al- 
ways regarded  as  a  most  disgraceful  thing. 

The  banqueters  usually  consumed  the  night  in  merry-making, 
sometimes  being  broken  in  upon  from  the  street  by  other  bands 
of  revellers,  who  made  themselves  self-invited  guests. 

The  symposium  must  at  times,  when  the  conversation  was  sus- 
tained by  such  persons  as  Socrates  and  Aristophanes,  have  been 
"a  feast  of  reason  and  a  flow  of  soul "  indeed.  Xenophon  in  his 
"Banquet"  and  Plato  in  his  "Symposium"  have  each  left  us  a 
striking  report  of  such  an  entertainment. 

Occupations.  —  The  enormous  body  of  slaves  in  ancient  Greece 
(see  next  paragraph)  relieved  the  free  population  from  most  of 
those  forms  of  labor  classed  as  drudgery.  The  aesthetic  Greek 
regarded  as  degrading  any  kind  of  manual  labor  that  marred  the 
symmetry  or  beauty  of  the  body. 

At  Sparta,  and  in  other  states  where  oligarchical  constitutions 
prevailed,  the  citizens  formed  a  sort  of  military  caste,  strikingly 
similar  to  the  military  aristocracy  of  Feudal  Europe.     Their  chief 


354  SOCIAL   LIFE    OF   THE    GREEKS. 

occupation  was  martial  and  gymnastic  exercises  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  public  affairs.  The  Spartans,  it  will  be  recalled,  were 
forbidden  by  law  to  engage  in  trade.  In  other  aristocratic  states, 
as  at  Thebes,  a  man  by  engaging  in  trade  disqualified  himself  for 
full  citizenship. 

In  the  democratic  states,  however,  speaking  generally,  labor 
and  trade  were  regarded  with  less  contempt.  A  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  citizens  were  traders,  artisans,  and  farmers. 

Life  at  Athens  presented  some  peculiar  features.  All  Attica 
being  included  in  what  we  would  term  the  corporate  limits  of  the 
city,  the  roll  of  Athenian  citizens  included  a  large  body  of  well-to- 
do  farmers,  whose  residence  was  outside  the  city  walls.  The  Attic 
plains,  and  the  slopes  of  the  half- encircling  hills,  were  dotted  with 
beautiful  villas  and  inviting  farmhouses.  "  It  is  probable,"  says  a 
well-known  student  of  Greek  life,  in  speaking  of  the  appearance 
of  the  country  about  Athens  just  before  the  Peloponnesian  War, 
"that  as  a  scene  of  unambitious  affluence,  taste,  high  cultivation, 
and  rustic  contentment,  nothing  was  ever  beheld  to  compare  with 
Attica."  ^ 

And  then  Athens  being  the  head  of  a  great  empire  of  subject 
cities,  a  large  number  of  Athenian  citizens  were  necessarily  em- 
ployed as  salaried  officials  in  the  minor  positions  of  the  public 
service,  and  thus  pohtics  became  a  profession.  In  any  event, 
the  meetings  of  the  popular  assembly  and  the  discussion  of  mat- 
ters of  state  engrossed  more  or  less  of  the  time  and  attention  of 
every  citizen. 

Again,  the  great  Athenian  jury-courts,  which  were  busied  with 
cases  from  all  parts  of  the  empire,  gave  constant  employment  to 
nearly  one-fourth  of  the  citizens,  the  fee  that  the  juryman  received 
enabling  him  to  hve  without  other  business.  It  is  said  that,  in  the 
early  morning,  when  the  jurymen  were  passing  through  the  streets 
to  the  different  courts,  Athens  appeared  like  a  city  wholly  given  up 
to  the  single  business  of  law.  Furthermore,  the  great  public 
works,  such  as  temples  and  commemorative  monuments,  which 

1  St.  John,  History  of  the  Mamiers  and  Customs  of  A?uient  Greece. 


SLAVERY.  355 

were  in  constant  process  of  erection,  afforded  employment  for  a 
vast  number  of  artists  and  skilled  workmen  of  every  class. 

In  the  Agora,  again,  at  any  time  of  the  day,  a  numerous  class 
might  have  been  found  whose  sole  occupation,  as  in  the  case  of 
Socrates,  was  to  talk.  The  writer  of  the  "  Acts  of  the  Apostles  " 
was  so  impressed  with  this  feature  of  life  at  Athens  that  he  sum- 
marized the  habits  of  the  people  by  saying,  "  All  the  Athenians 
and  strangers  which  were  there  spent  their  time  in  nothing  else 
but  either  to  tell  or  to  hear  some  new  thing." 

Slavery.  —  There  is  a  dark  side  to  Greek  life.  Hellenic  art, 
culture,  refinement  — "  these  good  things  were  planted,  like  ex- 
quisite exotic  flowers,  upon  the  black,  rank  soil  of  slavery." 

The  proportion  of  slaves  to  the  free  population  in  many  of  the 
states  was  astonishingly  large.  In  Corinth  and  ^gina  there  were 
ten  slaves  to  every  freeman.  In  Attica  the  proportion  was  four  to 
one  ;  that  is  to  say,  out  of  a  population  of  about  500,000,  400,000 
were  slaves.-^  Almost  every  freeman  was  a  slave  owner.  It  was 
accounted  a  real  hardship  to  have  to  get  along  with  less  than  half 
a  dozen  slaves. 

This  large  class  of  slaves  was  formed  in  various  ways.  In  the 
prehistoric  period,  the  fortunes  of  war  had  brought  the  entire 
population  of  whole  provinces  into  a  servile  condition,  as  in  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  Peloponnesus.  During  later  times,  the  ordinary 
captives  of  war  still  further  augmented  the  ranks  of  these  unfor- 
tunates. Their  number  was  also  largely  added  to  by  the  slave 
traffic  carried  on  with  the  barbarian  peoples  of  Asia  Minor.  Crimi- 
nals and  debtors,  too,  were  often  condemned  to  servitude ;  while 
foundlings  were  usually  brought  up  as  slaves. 

The  relation  of  master  and  slave  was  regarded  by  the  Greek 
as  being,  not  only  a  legal,  but  a  natural  one.  A  free  community, 
in  his  view,  could  not  exist  without  slavery,  it  formed  the  nat- 
ural basis  of  both  the  family  and  the  state,  —  the  relation  of  master 
and  slave  being  regarded  as  "  strictly  analogous  to  the  relation  of 

1  The  population  of  Attica  in  317  B.C.  is  reckoned  at  about  527,000.     That 
Loi  Athens  in  its  best  days  was  probably  not  far  from  1 50,000. 


356  SOCIAL   LIFE    OF   THE    GREEKS. 

soul  and  body."  Even  Aristotle  and  other  Greek  philosophers 
approved  the  maxim  that  "  slaves  were  simply  domestic  animals 
possessed  of  intelligence."  ^  They  were  regarded  just  as  necessary 
in  the  economy  of  the  family  as  cooking  utensils. 

In  general,  Greek  slaves  were  not  treated  harshly  —  judging 
their  treatment  by  the  standard  of  humanity  that  prevailed  in 
antiquity.  Some  held  places  of  honor  in  the  family,  and  enjoyed 
the  confidence  and  even  the  friendship  of  their  master.  Yet  at 
Sparta,  where  slavery  assumed  the  form  of  serfdom,  the  lot  of  the 
slave  was  peculiarly  hard  and  unendurable.  Even  at  Athens  we 
hear  much,  in  connection  with  the  state  silver  mines  at  Laurium 
(in  southern  Attica),  of  a  labor  contract-system  which  certainly 
was  characterized  by  much  callousness  of  feeling  towards  the 
slave,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  conditions  of  the  usual  agree- 
ment, which  bound  the  contractor  to  pay  an  annual  rental  equal 
to  one-half  the  value  of  the  slave  (which  implies  that  the  poor 
creatures  were  worn  out  rapidly),  and  at  the  expiration  of  the 
contract  to  return  to  the  owner  simply  the  same  number  of  slaves 
as  had  been  hired. 

If  ever  slavery  was  justified  by  its  fruits,  it  was  in  Greece.  The 
brilliant  civilization  of  the  Greeks  was  its  product,  and  could  never 
have  existed  without  it.  As  one  truthfully  says,  "  Without  the 
slaves  the  Attic  democracy  would  have  been  an  impossibility,  for 
they  alone  enabled  the  poor,  as  well  as  the  rich,  to  take  a  part  in 
public  affairs."  Relieving  the  citizen  of  all  drudgery,  the  system 
created  a  class  characterized  by  elegant  leisure,  refinement,  and 
culture. 

1  This  harsh,  selfish  theory,  it  should  be  noted,  was  somewhat  modified  and 
relaxed,  when  the  slave  class,  through  the  numerous  captives  of  the  unfortu- 
nate civil  wars,  came  to  be  made  up  in  considerable  part  of  cultured  Greeks, 
instead  of  being,  as  was  the  case  in  earlier  times,  composed  almost  exclusively 
of  barbarians,  or  of  inferior  branches  of  the  Hellenic  race,  between  whom  and 
their  cultured  masters  there  was  the  same  difference  in  mental  qualities  as  ex- 
isted between  the  negro  slaves  and  their  masters  in  our  own  country.  The 
sentiment  that  a  slave  was  an  unfortunate  person,  rather  than  an  inferior  being, 
came  to  prevail  —  a  sentiment  which  aided  powerfully  in  preparing  the  way 
for  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  universal  brotherhood  of  man. 


SLA  VER  Y.  357 

We  find  an  almost  exact  historical  parallel  to  all  this  in  the 
feudal  aristocracy  of  Mediaeval  Europe.  Such  a  society  has  been 
well  likened  to  a  great  pyramid,  whose  top  may  be  gilded  with 
light,  while  its  base  lies  in  dark  shadows.  The  civilization  of 
ancient  Hellas  was  splendid  and  attractive,  but  it  rested  with  a 
crushing  weight  upon  all  the  lower  orders  of  Greek  society. 


INDEX 


AND 


PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY. 


Note.  —  In  the  case  of  words  whose  correct  pronunciation  has  not  seemed  clearly  indicated 
by  their  accentuation  and  syllabication,  the  sounds  of  the  letters  have  been  denoted  thus:  a, 
like  a  in  gray;  a,  like  a  in  have;  a,  like  a  in  far;  e,  like  ee  in  feet;  e,  like  e  in  end;  e  and 
eh,  like  k;  9,  like  s;  g,  likey/  §,  like  z. 


A. 

Aaron,  109. 

Abraham,  7. 

Academy,  the,  232. 

Accadians,  59,  68-72. 

Ac'cad,  59. 

A-€h3e'ans,  the,  156,  157,  169,  170. 

Achaean  League,  280. 

Achaia  (a-ka'ya),  152,  169. 

A-ehil'les,  167,  180,  note. 

A-crop'o-lis,  Athenian,  289. 

Adrastus,  165,  166. 

-^-gi'na,  236. 

^'gos-pot'a-mi,  capture  of  Athenian 

fleet  at,  250. 
iE-ne'as,  168. 
^-o'li-ans,  the,  157,  170. 
vE'o-lus,  176. 
iEs'«hi-nes,  324. 
^s'-ehy-lus,  313. 
^s'cu-la'pi-us,  344,  note, 
^-to'li-an  League,  280. 
Ag'a-mem'non,  166. 
Ag'es-san'der,  300. 
A-ges'i-la'us,  254,  255. 
Ag'o-ra#the,  171. 


Ag'ri-gen'tum,  190. 

Ah'ri-man,  146. 

Al-cae'us,  359. 

AFci-bi'a-des,  247,  248,  249,  250. 

Al-e'mae-on'i-dae,  first  banishment  from 
Athens,  202,  203;  second  banish- 
ment, 205;  contract  to  rebuild  the 
Delphian  temple,  205,  206. 

Alexander  the  Great,  261-270. 

Alexandria,  founding  of,  264;  under 
the  Ptolemies,  277,  278. 

Alexandrian  Literature,  324,  326. 

Museum    and    Library, 
277,  278. 

Alphabets,  124-126. 

A'ly-at'tes  III.,  129,  133. 

A-ma'sis,  31. 

A-men'em-hat'  III.,  21. 

Am'mon,  Zeus,  265. 

A-mo'sis,  23. 

Am'u-noph  III.,  24. 

Am'phi-a-ra'us,  165. 

Am-phic'ty-on'ic  Council,  the,  183, 
184. 

Am'y-tis,  97. 

A-na'cre-on,  310. 


360 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY. 


An'ax-ag'o-ras,  330. 
A-nax'i-manMer,  328. 
An'ax-im'e-nes,  328. 
An-tal'9i-das,  Peace  of,  253. 
Antioch,  275. 
An-ti'o-chus  IV.,  E-piph'a-nes,  276; 

III.,  the  Great,  276. 
An-tip'a-ter,  279. 
An'ti-phon,  322,  note. 
Antiquity  of  man,  2. 
A-pel'les,  303. 
Aph'ro-di'te,  176. 
A'pis,  38. 
A-poc'ry-pha,  117, 
A-pol'lo,  175;   oracles  of,  178,  179. 
Arabians,  8. 
Ar-be'la,  battle  of,  265. 
Arcadia,  152,  153. 
Ar'-ehi-me'des,  342. 
Architecture,  Assyrian,  89-92. 

Babylonian,  101-105. 

Chaldaean,  64,  65. 

Grecian,  283-294. 

Pelasgian,  284. 

Persian,  148-15 1. 
Architecture,  orders  of,  285. 
Archons,  the,  201. 
A're-op'a-gus,  court  of  the,  203,  204, 

234,  note. 
A'res,  175. 
Ar'go-lis,  southern  part  of,  conquered 

by  Sparta,  199. 
Argonauts,  164. 
Argos,  191,  198. 
Ar-is-tar'-ehus,  343. 
Ar'is-ti'des,  the  Just,  215,  228-230. 
Ar'is-toph'a-nes,  317. 
Ar'is-tot'le,  335-337»  3455  views  re- 
specting slavery,  356. 
Ar-me'ni-a,  253. 
Ar'ta-ba'nus,  319, 


Ar'ta-pher'nes,  141,  211. 

Artaxerxes  (ar'tax-erx'es)  II.,  142, 
253,  254. 

Ar'te-mis,  176. 

Ar^te-mis'i-a,  291. 

Ar-te-mis'i-um,  battle  of,  221,  222. 

Ar'y-an  family,  members  of,  8;  mi- 
grations of,  8-10;  early  culture  of 
the  Aryans,  10-12;  importance  of 
Aryan  studies,  12. 

As-pa'si-a,  349. 

As'shur-ban'i-pal,  81.  82,  93. 

As'shur-naz'ir-pal,  77,  78. 

Assyria,  political  history  of,  76,  83; 
influence  of,  upon  civilization,  94. 

Assyrian  libraries,  92-94. 

Assyrian  monarchy,  76-83;  nature  of 
the,  84,  85;  royal  sports,  87;  royal 
cities,  88;   palaces,  89,  92. 

Assyrians,  character  of,  86;  religion 
of,  85;  their  palaces  and  temples, 
89-92.^ 

As-ty'a-ges,  129,  130,  133. 

A-the'na,  175. 

Athens,  early  growth  of,  199-209; 
site  of,  200;  kings  of,  200;  pre- 
pares for  Persian  vengeance,  214; 
abandoned  in  Persian  War,  222; 
rebuilding  of,  225-227;  her  Long 
Walls,  235,  note;  pestilence  at, 
244;  under  the  Council  of  Four 
Hundred,  250;  condition  at  end 
of  Peloponnesian  War,  251;  under 
the  Thirty  Tyrants,  252. 

Athenian  constitution,  reformed  by 
Solon,  203;  by  Cleisthenes,  206, 
207. 

Athenian  supremacy,  225-241. 

Athenian  Empire,  strength  and  weak- 
ness of,  239-241. 

A-then'o-do'rus,  300. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY. 


361 


A'thos,  216. 

A'tre-us,  treasury  of,  284. 

At'ta-lus  III.,  276,  note. 

At'ti-ca,  163;  population  of,  199,  200; 

townships  of,   200,  note,  207,  355; 

state  of,  at  time  of  Peloponnesian 

War,  354. 
Au-re'li-us,  Marcus,  338. 

B. 

Babylon,  destroyed  by  Sennacherib, 
81;  restored  by  Esarhaddon,  81 ; 
taken  by  Cyrus,  99;  great  edifices 
of,  101-105. 

Babylonia,  geology  of,  57;  produc- 
tions of,  57. 

Babylonian  monarchy,  99-101. 

Bactria,  266,  267,  note. 

Basque  (bask),  5. 

Be'his-tun'  Rock,  139. 

Bel-shaz'zar,  99,  100,  note. 

Beni-Hassan  (ba'nee-has'san),  tombs 
of,  22,  285. 

Be-ro'sus,  325. 

Bes'sus,  143. 

Birs-Nimrud,  ruins  of,  101-103. 

Boe-o'ti-a,  152. 

Bor-sip'pa,  loi,  104. 

Botta,  M.,  92. 

Bras'i-das,  246. 

Bren'nus,  279. 

By-zan'ti-um,  260. 

C. 

Cad'mus,  158. 
Ci'lah,  78. 
Cal'^has,  178,  note. 
Cambunian  Mountains,  153. 
Cam-by' sis,  135,  136. 
Canaanites,  7,  120,  123,  note. 
Car'che-mish,  24,  25,  31. 


Car-ma'ni-a,  268. 

Carthage,  123. 

Cas-san'der,  274. 

Cayster,  the,  128. 

Ce'crops,  158. 

(^e-cro'pi-a,  158. 

(^elts,  9,  13,  note. 

^er'be-rus,  177. 

"Ghaer'o-ne'a,  battle  of,  261. 

-Chal-gid'i-gi,  259. 

-Chal'^is,  208. 

-Ghaldaean  monarchy,  57-63. 

■Chaldseans,  mixed  character  of,  59; 

arts,  religion,  and  general  culture 

of,  64-75. 
Champollion  (sham-pol'e-on),  50. 
-Cha'res,  300. 
-Cha-ryb'dis,  177. 
■ehe'ops,  19,  43. 
•Ched-or-la'o-mer,  62. 
■Chi-mae'ra,  the,  177. 
-Chi'os,  153. 
-Gho-ra'gus,  352. 
-Christianity  and  Neo-Platonism,  340, 

341- 
•Chronology,  Assyrian,  106. 

Babylonian,  106. 

Chaldsean,  106. 

Egyptian,  17,  33. 

Grecian,  272. 

of  the  Seleucid^e,  282. 

of  the  Ptolemies,  282. 
Cim-me'ri-ans,  129. 
gimon,  232,  233. 
Cla-zom'e-nae,  254. 
Cleis'the-nes,  reforms  of,  206,  207. 
Cle-om'e-nes,  208,  298. 
Cleomenic  War,  280. 
Cle'on,  245,  246,  247. 
Cle'o-pa'tra,  279. 
Cli'tus,  267. 


362 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABUIARY. 


Clyt'em-nes'tra,  i68. 

Co'drus,  200. 

Colonies,  Greek,  189,  190. 

Co-los'sus  at  Rhodes,  300. 

Cor-9y'ra,  154. 

Corcyraeans,  242. 

Corinth,  Isthmus  of,  152. 

Corinth,  Congress  at,  216-218. 

Corinthian  War,  254. 

Co-roe' bus,  181. 

Cor'o-ne'a,  battle  of,  237. 

Cos-mog'ra-phy  of  the  Greeks,  174. 

Crete,  154. 

Croe'sus,  130,  i3i. 

Cro'ton,  189. 

Cryp'ti-a,  197. 

Cu-nax'a,  battle  of,  253. 

Cuneiform  writing,  65-67. 

(^y-ax'a-res,  83. 

(^yc'la-des,  the,  153. 

^y'lon,  rebellion  of,  202. 

(^yn'ics,  the,  338. 

Cy-re'ne,  195. 

^yrus  the  Great,  134-135. 

the  Younger,  253. 
Cythera  (si-thee'ra),  island  of,  154. 

D. 

Da'mon,  350. 

Da-na'us,  158. 

Darius  I.,  137-141,  210-212. 

III.,  142,  143,  264,  265. 

Da'tis,  Persian  general,  1 41,  211. 

David,  King,  112. 

Deb'o-rah,  in. 

Deg'e-le'a,  249. 

De'li-um,  battle  of,  246. 

Delos,  island  of,  153. 

Delos,  Confederacy  of,  229,  230;  con- 
verted into  an  empire  by  the  Athe- 
nians, 230,  232. 


Delphi,  oracle  of,  152,  179,  206,  222. 
Delphian  temple,  205,  288. 
De-me'ter,  176. 
De-moc'ri-tus,  331. 
De-mos'the-nes,  the  general,  246,  248, 

note,  249. 
Demosthenes,   the    orator,   261,   279, 

322. 
Di-a'na,  temple  of,  at  Ephesus,  286. 
Dicasteries,  234,  note. 
Di'o-do'rus  Sic'u-lus,  326. 
Di-og'e-nes,  338. 

Di'o-nys'i-us,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  334. 
Di'o-ny'sus,   176,  31 1;    theatre  of,  at 

Athens,  294. 
Divination  among  the  Greeks,  178. 
Do-do'na,  oracle  at,  152,  156,  179. 
Dorians,  the,  156,  157,  170. 
Dorian  invasion  of  the  Peloponnesus, 

168. 
Do-ris'cus,  plain  of,  219. 
Draco,  laws  of,  201,  202. 
Dragon,  the,  177. 
Drama,  the  Greek,  311-318. 

E. 

Education  among   the  Greeks,  346- 

348. 

Egypt,  geology  of,  15;  climate  of, 
16;  delta  of  the  Nile,  16;  dynasties 
and  chronology,  17-19;  political 
history  of,  19-32. 

Egyptians,  classes  among,  34;  the 
priesthood,  34;  the  warrior  class, 
35 ;  religious  doctrines,  35 ;  animal 
worship,  37-39;  judgment  of  the 
dead,  40;  tombs,  41;  pyramids, 
42;  palaces  and  temples,  44;  sculp- 
tures, 46-49 ;  writing  and  literature, 
50-52;  science,  52;  art  of  em- 
balming, 53;   royal  mummies,  54. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY. 


363 


E'la-mites,  6i. 

Elgin  (el-gin),  Lord,  291,  note. 
Elijah,  the  prophet,  115. 
El-Kasr  mound  at  Babylon,  103. 
Elysium  (e-lizh'i-um),  175,  180. 
Em-ped'o-cles,  331. 
E-pam'i-non'das,  255,  256. 
Eph'i-al'tes,  234,  note. 
Eph'ors,  194. 
Ep'ic-te'tus,  338. 
Ep'i-cu'rus,  339. 
E-pig'o-ni,  War  of  the,  166. 
E-pi'rus,  152. 
E-re'tri-a,  211. 
Er'a-tos'the-nes,  343. 
E'ros,  176. 
E'sar-had'don  I.,  81. 

II.,  82,  83. 
Ethiopia,  17,  18. 
Ethiopians,  136. 
Etrurians,  5. 
Eu'clid,  342. 
Eu-boe'a,  island  of,  153. 
Eu'me-nes  II.,  276. 
Eu-men'i-des,  176. 
Euphrates,  valley  of  the,  57. 
Eu-rip'i-des,  315. 
Eu-rym'e-don,  battle  of  the,  232. 
E'vil-Me-ro'dach,  99. 

F. 

Fates,  the,  176. 

Fayoom  (fi-oom'),  district  of  the,  21, 

note. 
Fire-worshippers,  147,  note. 
Furies,  the,  176,  177. 


G. 


Ga'des,  123. 
Ga-la'ti-a,  279, 


Ga-le'nus,  345. 

Games,  sacred,  of  the  Greeks,  181 ; 
influence  of,  182. 

Gauls,  the,  279. 

Ge-dro'si-a,  268. 

Ge'lon,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  216. 

Genesis,  -Ghaldaean  account  of,  72. 

Go-ma'tes,  136. 

Gor'di-um,  263. 

Gordius,  263. 

Gor'gi-as,  331. 

Gor'gons,  176. 

Graeco-Persian  War,  210-224. 

Gra-ni'cus,  battle  of  the,  263. 

Grecian  migrations  to  Asia  Minor, 
1 70. 

Greece,  divisions  of,  152;  mountains 
of,  153;  islands  about,  153;  influ- 
ence of  country  upon  inhabitants, 

154- 
Greeks,   genius   of    the,    159;     local 

patriotism   of,   159;    their   legends 

and  myths,  1 62-1 70;  society  in  the 

Heroic  Age,  1 71-173;    religion  of 

the,  174-185;    their  colonies,  189, 

190;    social  life   of  the,  346-357; 

friendship  among,  349 ;  occupations 

among,  353. 

Gu-de'a,  61,  note. 

Gy'ges,  128,  129. 

Gy-lip'pus,  249. 

H. 

Ha'des,  realm  of,  174;   the  god,  176. 

Hal'i-car-nas'sus,  mausoleum  of,  291. 

Ha'lys,  the,  129. 

Hamites,  6. 

Hanging  gardens  of  Babylon,  104. 

Harpies,  the,  176,  177. 

He'be,  176. 

Hector,  167. 


364 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY. 


Hebrews,  early  migrations  of,  7;  en- 
ter Egypt,  22,  23;  in  Egypt,  28, 
108 ;  Patriarchal  Age,  107  ;  the  Ex- 
odus, 109;  conquest  of  Canaan, 
no;  the  Judges,  1 1 1 ;  founding  of 
the  monarchy,  in;  division  of  the 
monarchy,  114;  kingdom  of  Israel, 
115;  kingdom  of  Judah,  115;  re- 
ligion and  literature,  117. 

Hel'i-con,  Mount,  153. 

Hellas,  the  name,  154. 

Hel'len-ism,  meaning  of  term,  258, 
note. 

Hel-le'nes,     the,      156-158.  (See 

Greeks.^ 

Hellespontine  bridges,  216,  218. 

Hel'les-pont,  passage  of,  by  Xerxes, 
218. 

He'lots,  the,  191,  192,  note,  197,  233. 

He-tai'rse,  the,  349,  350. 

He-phses'tus,  174,  175,  177. 

He'ra,  175. 

Her'a-cles,  162,  163. 

Her'a-cli'dae,  returning  of  the,  168, 
169. 

Her'a-ch'tus,  328. 

Her'mes,  175;  statues  of,  at  Athens, 
mutilated,  248,  note. 

He-rod'o-tus,  318. 

He-ros'tra-tus,  286. 

Hez'e-ki'ah,  king  of  Judah,  80. 

He'si-od,  309. 

Hes-per'i-des,  garden  of  the,  175. 

Hestia,  176. 

Hieroglyphics,  Egyptian,  50. 
■Ghaldaean,  65. 

Him'e-ra,  battle  of,  223,  note. 

Hindu  Kush  Mountains,  89. 

Hindus  enter  India,  9. 

Hip-par'chus,  205,  343. 

Hip'pi-as,  205,  206,  209,  211. 


Hip'po,  123. 

Hip-poc'ra-tes,  344. 

Hiram,  King,  121,  126. 

Hittites,  war  with  the  Egyptian  kings, 
25,  27;  with  the  Assyrian  kings, 
77;  their  relation  to  the  kingdom 
of  Lydia,  128,  132. 

Homer,  307. 

Ho'rus,  36. 

Hun-ga'ri-ans,  5. 

Hyk'sos,  22,  23. 

Hy-met'tus,  Mount,  153. 

Hy-pa'ti-a,  341. 


Ic-ti'nus,  289. 

Il'i-ad,  the,  306,  308. 

Il'i-os,  166. 

India,  partly  subdued   by  Darius  I., 

139- 
In-fant'i-cide  among  the  Greeks,  346, 

note. 
Ionian  Confederacy,  170. 
Ionian  islands,  154. 
lonians,  the,  156,  157,  170. 
Ip'sus,  battle  of,  274. 
I'ris,  176. 
I-sae'us,  322,  note. 
I-sag'o-ras,  208. 
I'sis,  36. 

I-soc'ra-tes,  322,  note. 
Israel,  captivity  of,  79,  115;  kingdom 

of,  115;    chronology  of  kings,  119. 
Is'sus,  battle  of,  264. 
Ith'a-ca,  154. 
I-tho'me,  Mount,  256. 
Iz-du-bar',  Epic  of,  73,  74. 

J. 

Jealousy,  divine,  Greek  doctrine  of, 
184. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABUIARY. 


365 


Jer-o-bo'am,  114. 

Jerusalem,  98,  112. 

Joseph,  108. 

Josephus,  118. 

Joshua,  1 10. 

Judges,  chronology  of,  119. 

Jndah,  captivity  of,  98,  116;  king- 
dom of,  115;  chronology  of  kings 
of,  119. 

Julian,  the  Apostate,  341. 

K. 

Ka'desh,  battle  of,  27. 

Kafra,  20. 

Kar'nak,   Temple    of,    24;     Hall    of 

Columns  at,  25,  44. 
Khor-sa-bad',  80,  88. 
Kleruchies,  189,  209. 
Kre'on,  king  of  Thebes,  166. 
Ku'dur-Na-khun'ta,  61. 


La'bas-so-ra'cus,  99. 
Labyrinth,  the,  21,  22. 
La^-e-dse'mon,  191. 
La-co'ni-a,  153. 
Laius  (la-yus),  164. 
Lam'a-chus,  248,  note. 
La'mi-an  War,  279. 
La-oc'o-on  group,  301. 
Lau'ri-um,  356. 
Layard,  89,  92. 
Le-on'i-das,  220,  221. 
Lesbos,  island  of,  153,  170. 
Leuc'tra,  battle  of,  255. 
Literature,  Assyrian,  92-94, 

Chaldgean,  67-74. 

Egyptian,  51. 

Hebrew,  117,  118 

Greek,  305-326. 


Long  Walls,  the,  of  Athens,  235, 
note,  236;  destruction  of,  251. 

Luxor,  Palace  of,  24,  44. 

Ly-ce'um,  the,  201. 

Lycia,  130. 

Ly-cur'gus,  192,  193. 

Lydia,  the  country  and  people,  128; 
its  history,  128-132;  connecting 
link  between  the  East  and  the 
West,  131. 

Ly-san'der,  250. 

Lys'i-as,  322,  note. 

Ly-sic'ra-tes,  choragic  monument  of, 
284. 

Ly-sim'a-chus,  274. 

Ly-sip'pus,  300. 

M. 

Mac'ca-bees,  the,  276. 

Mac'e-do'ni-an  supremacy,  258-271, 

Mac'e-do'ni-a,  population  of,  258; 
under  Philip  II.,  259-261;  after 
the  death  of  Alexander,  279. 

Ma'gi-an-ism,  147. 

Mag-ne'si-a,  battle  of,  276. 

Magna  Graecia,  189. 

Mas-sa'li-a,  190. 

Man'e-tho,  17,  18,  325. 

Man'ti-ne'a,  battle  of,  256. 

Mar'a-thon,  battle  of,  211,  213. 

Mar-do'ni-us,  140. 

Mau-so'lus,  291. 

Medes,  the,  133. 

Meg'a-cles,  202. 

Meg'a-lop'o-lis,  256. 

Me-nan'der,  318,  note. 

Me'nes,  19. 

Men'e-la'us,  166. 

Me-neph'tha,  28. 

Men-ka'ra,  20. 

Me-ro'dach-Bal'a-dan,  96,  97. 


366 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY. 


Mes-se'na,  199. 
Mes-se'ne,  256. 
Mes-se'ni-a,  198. 
Mes-se'ni-an  Wars,  198. 
Memnon,  the  Vocal,  48. 
Mi 'das,  263. 
Mi-le'tus,  140,  190. 
Mil-ti'a-des,  211,  212,  213. 
Mi'nos,  162,  164. 
Min'o-taur,  the,  163. 
Mith-ri-da'tes  the  Great,  273. 
Moe'ris,  Lake,  21,  note. 
Moses,  109,  no. 
Mo'sul,  88. 
Muses,  the,  176. 
Myc'a-le,  battle  of,  223. 
Myt'i-le'ne,  revolt  of,  245. 

N. 

Nab'o-na'di-us,  99,  100. 

Nab'o-nas'sar,  91. 

Nab'o-po-las'sar,  96. 

Nau'cra-tis,  29,  note,  190. 

Nax'os,  231. 

Ne-ar'chus,  268. 

Neb-u-€had-nez'zar,  97-99. 

Ne'cho  II.,  30,  31. 

Nem'e-sis,  176;   doctrine  of,  312. 

Ne'o-Pla'to-nists,  the,  340,  341. 

Ner-i-glis'sar,  99. 

Nestor,  167. 

Nig'i-as,  Peace  of,  246. 

Nicias,  248,  note,  249,  note. 

Nile,  deposits  of,  15;   inundations  of, 

16;   cataracts  of,  17. 
Nin'e-veh,  80;    destroyed  by  Medes 

and  Babylonians,  83;   ruins  of,  88; 

Royal  Library  at,  92. 
Ni'o-be,  the,  group,  298. 
Ni-to'cris,  Queen,  20,  note. 
Nymphs,  the,  176. 


O. 

0-dys'seus,  167,  168,  306. 
Od'ys-sey,  the,  306-308. 
(Ed'i-pus,  King,  165. 
Olympian  Council,  175. 

Games,  181,  182, 
Olympus,  Mount,  153. 
O-lyn'thi-an  Confederacy,  259. 
0-lyn'thus,  259. 
Oracles,  Greek,  1 78-1  So. 
Or'mazd,  145. 
O-ron'tes,  the,  27. 
0-si'ris,  36,  note,  38. 
Os'sa,  Mount,  153. 
Os'tra-cism,  207,  208. 


Pac-to'lus,  the,  128. 

Painting,  Greek,  301-304. 

Palmyra,  113. 

Pan-ath'e-nse'a,    the     Greater,     289, 

note. 
Pan-do'ra,  myth  of,  348. 
Papyrus  paper,  50. 
Paris,  son  of  Priam,  166. 
Pa'ros,  213. 

Parrhasius  (par-ra'shi-us),  302. 
Parsees  (see  Fire-worshippers) . 
Par'the-non,    treasures    of    the,    287. 

note;   description  of,  289. 
Parthia,  276,  note. 
Par-nas'sus,  Mount,  153. 
Pa-tro'clus,  167. 
Pau-sa'ni-as,  229,  note,  344. 
Pelasgians,  the,  155,  156. 
Pelasgian  architecture,  284. 
Pe'li-on,  Mount,  153. 
Pe'lops,  158. 
Pe-lop'i-das,  255. 
Pel'o-pon-ne'sus,  the  divisions  of,  152; 

invaded  by  the  Dorians,  168. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY. 


367 


Peloponnesian  (-zhan)  War,  the,  242- 
252. 

Pe-nel'o-pe,  168,  172. 

Pen-tel'i-cus,  Mount,  153. 

Pe'pi,  20,  note. 

Per-dic'cas,  273,  note. 

Pe'ri-an'der,  188. 

Per'i-cles,  fosters  the  naval  power  of 
Athens,  235;  his  social  policy,  238; 
his  death,  244;   as  an  orator,  322. 

Pericles,  the  Age  of,  234,  241. 
Peace  of,  237. 

Per'i-oe'gi,  the,  191. 

Per'ga-mus,  276,  note. 

Per-sep'o-lis,  150,  266. 

Persian  Empire,  established  by  Cy- 
rus, 134;  political  history  of,  133- 
143;  table  of  kings,  143;  nature  of 
government,  144. 

Persians,  relation  to  the  Medes,  133; 
literature  and  religion,  145-148. 

Pha'lanx,  the,  259,  note. 

Pha-le'rum,  236. 

Pha'ros,  the,  at  Alexandria,  277. 

Phi'di-as,  289,  296-298. 

Phi-dip'pi-des,  211. 

Philip  II.,  king  of  Macedonia,  259- 
261. 

Phi-lip'pi,  260,  note. 

Phi'lo,  118,  340. 

Phocians,  260,  288. 

Pho'cis,  152. 

Phoe-nic'i-a,  products  of,  120. 

Phoenicians,    their    early   migrations, 
120;    their   commerce,  122;    colo- 
nies,   123;    routes    of  trade,    123; 
arts   disseminated   by,  124;   enter- 
prises aided  by,  126. 
Pindar,  310. 
Piracy  in  Greece,  173. 
Pis'is-trat'i-dae,  188,  205,  206. 


Pi-sis'tra-tus,  204,  205. 

Pla-tae'a,  243,  245,  246. 

Pla-tse'a,  battle  of,  223. 

Plato,  334. 

Plo-ti'nus,  340. 

Plu'tarch,  326. 

Po-lyb'i-us,  325. 

Po-lyc'ra-tes,  188,  note. 

Pol'y-cle'tus,  298. 

Pol-y-do'rus,  300. 

Po-lyx'e-na,  302,  note. 

Pontus,  273,  note. 

Po'rus,  267. 

Poseidon  (po-si'don),  175. 

Pot'i-dse'a,  242. 

Prax-it'e-les,  298. 

Pri-e'ne,  287,  note. 

Prod'i-cus,  331. 

Prop'y-lse'a,  the,  of  the  Acropolis  at 

Athens,  238. 
Pro-tag'o-ras,  331. 
Pro-tog'e-nes,  303. 
Psam-met'i-chus  I.,  28-30. 

III.,  31- 
Ptol'e-mies,  kingdom  of  the,  277-279. 
Ptolemy,  Claudius,  344. 

Euergetes,  278. 

Philadelphus,  278. 

Soter,  277. 
Py'los,  246. 
Pyramids,  42,  43. 
Pyramid  Kings,  19. 
Py-thag'o-ras,  329. 
Pyr'rho,  339,  340. 
Pyth'i-as,  350. 
Pyth'i-an  games,  184. 

« 
R. 

Races   of  mankind,    2,  3;     table   of 
the,  13. 


368 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABUIARY. 


Ra-me'ses  I.,  25. 

II.,  25-28;   mummy  of,  54. 
Ra'phi-a,  battle  of,  79. 
Re'ho-bo'am,  114. 
Rhe'gi-um,  199. 

Rhodes,  153,   154,  273,  note;   Colos- 
sus at,  300. 


Sacred  War,  First,  183. 

Second,  260. 
Sages,  the  Seven,  327. 
Sa'is,  29. 

Sal'a-mis,  battle  of;  223. 
Samaria,  79. 
Sa'mos,  153,  154. 
Samson,  iii. 
Sappho  (saf'fo),  309. 
Sar'a-cus,  82,  83. 
Sar'dis,  capital  of  Lydia,  128;  sacked 

by  the  Cimmerians,  129;   captured 

by    Cyrus,    131 ;     sacked    by    the 

Greeks,  140. 
Sar'gon  I.,  60,  69. 
Sargon,  Assyrian  king,  79,  80. 
Saul,  king  of  the  Hebrews,  112. 
Scar-a-bae'i,  49. 
Sco'pas,  291,  298. 
Scyl'la,  177. 

Se-ken'en-Ra',  55.         , 
Sel'eu-ci'a,  275. 
Se-leu'cus  Ni-ca'tor,  274,  275. 
Se-leu'ci-dae,  kingdom   of  the,    274- 

276. 
Semitic  peoples,  7,  8. 
Sen-nach'e-rib,  80,  81,  94,  note. 
Sep'tu-a-gint,  the,  325. 
Set  (Typhon),  37. 
Se'ti  I.,  25,  54. 
ShaKma-ne'ger  II.,  78. 
Sheba,  Queen  of,  114. 


Shepherd  Kings,  22,  23. 

Shu'mir,  59. 

Si-gil'i-an  Expedition,  the,  247-249^ 

Sidon,  121. 

Si-mon'i-des  of  (^eos,  310. 

Sis'e-ra,  iii. 

Siwah  (see'wa),  265. 

Skeptics,  the,  339. 

Slavery  in  Greece,  355. 

Slavonians,  9. 

Soc'ra-tes,  252,  332-334. 

Sog'di-a'na,  266,  267. 

Solomon,  King,  113. 

So 'Ion,  laws  of,  203,  204;   tablets  of 

his  laws,  234,  note. 
Sophists,  the,  331. 
Soph'o-cles,  315. 
Sos'i-cles,  209. 
Sparta,  the  early  growth  of,  190-199: 

earthquake  at,  233. 
Spartan  constitution,  194,  195;    lands 

and    money,    195;     public    tables, 

196;   education,  196,  197. 
Spartans,  the,  191.     (See  Sparta.) 
Sphac-te'ri-a,  246. 
Sphinx,  the,  48. 
Spor'a-des,  the,  153. 
Sta-gi'ra,  336. 
Stoics,  the,  337-339. 
Stra'bo,  344. 
Stra-te'gi,  207. 
Su'ni-um,  287,  note. 
Susa,  capital  of  Elam,  61,  138,  266. 
Su-si-a'na,  82. 
Syb'a-ris,  189. 
Sym-po'si-a,  352. 
Syracuse,  190,  248. 
Syria,  kingdom  of,  274-276. 


T. 


Tad'mor,  1 13. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY. 


369 


Tal'mud,  Ii8. 

Ta-ren'tum,  189. 

Tar'ta-rus,  174. 

Te'ge-a,  199. 

Tempe,  Vale  of,  152. 

Tha'les,  328. 

Theatres,  Greek,  293,  350. 

Thebes,  in  Egypt,  20. 

Thebes,  in  Greece,  164;  supremacy 
of,  255-257;  destroyed  by  Alexan- 
der the  Great,  263. 

The-mis'to-cles,  in  Persian  War,  214, 
215,  216,  217;  as  an  envoy,  226; 
naval  policy  of,  227;  character  of, 
228 ;  as  an  orator,  322. 

Ther-mop'y-lae,  battle  of,  220. 

The-oc'ri-tus,  325. 

Theseum,  temple  of,  232. 

The'seus,  162,  166,  200,  232. 

Thes'sa-ly,  152. 

Thirty  Years'  Truce,  237. 

Thoth'mes  III.,  23. 

Thrace,  kingdom  of,  274. 

Thrace,  partly  conquered  by  Philip  II., 
260. 

Thucydides  (thu-sid'i-dez),  320. 

Tig'lath-i-nin',  63. 

Tig'lath-Pi-le'§er  I.,  76,  77. 
II.,  78,  79. 

Tigris,  valley  of  the,  57. 

Ti'mon,  248. 

Ti-re'si-as,  178,  note. 

Ti'ryns,  285. 

Trojan  War,  166-168,  170,  note. 

Troy  (see  Ilios). 


Turanian  peoples,  4-6. 

Turks,  the,  5. 

Ty'phon  (see  Sef). 

Tyrants,  Greek,  187,  188. 

Tyre,   captured   by   Nebuchadnezzar, 

98;    history   of,   121;    siege  of,  by 

Alexander,  264. 
Tyr-tse'us,  198. 

U. 

Ur,  city  of,  61. 
Ur-ea,  60,  61. 
Usurtasen  III.,  21. 
U'ti-ca,  123. 

W. 

Wolf,  views  of,  on  Homeric  poems, 

308. 
Woman,    social   position   of,    among 

the  Greeks,  348. 

X. 

Xan-thip'pe,  333. 

Xen'o-phon,  253,  321. 

Xerxes  (zerks'ez)   I.,  reign  of,   141  ; 

prepares   to    invade    Greece,    215, 

216. 

Z. 

Zed-e-ki'ah,  98. 

Ze'no,  338. 

Zeus,  175;   oracles  of,  178,  179. 

Zenx'.b  (zijKs'iss),  302. 

Zo-ro-as'ter.  14^. 

Zoroastrianism,  145-148. 


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